Mr. Richin's 198 Ultimate Facts and Terms for the AP Gov Exam

Single Issue Groups

Groups that have a narrow interest, tend to dislike compromise, and often draw membership from people new to politics.

Linkage Institutions

parties, elections, interest groups, media; transmit Americans' preferences to the policymakers in government

Policy Agenda

The issues that attract the serious attention of public officials and other people actively involved in politics at a given time.

Majority Rule

A fundamental principle of traditional democratic theory. In a democracy, choosing among alternatives requires that the majority's desire be respected.

Minority Rights

A principle of traditional democratic theory that guarantees rights to those who do not belong to majorities.

Representation

A basic principle of traditional democratic theory that describes the relationship between the few leaders and the many followers.

Pluralist Theory (Pluralism)

A theory of American democracy emphasizing that the policymaking process is very open to the participation of all groups with shared interests, with no single group usually dominating. Pluralists tend to believe that as a result, public interest generally prevails.

Elite and Class Theory

A theory of American democracy contending that an upper-class elite holds the power and makes policy, regardless of the formal governmental organization. Elitism contends that our society, like all societies, is divided along class lines and that an upper-class elite pulls the strings of government.

Hyperpluralism

A theory of American democracy contending that groups are so strong that government, which gives in to the many different groups, is thereby weakened.

Policy Gridlock

A condition that occurs when interests conflict and no coalition is strong enough to form a majority and establish policy, so nothing gets done.

Constitution

A nation's basic law. It creates political institutions, assigns or divides powers in government, and often provides certain guarantees to citizens. Constitutions can be either written or unwritten.

Declaration of Independence

The document approved by representatives of the American colonies in 1776 that stated their grievances against the British monarch and declared their independence.

Articles of Confederation

The first constitution of the United States, adopted by Congress in 1777 and ratified in 1781.

Factions

Groups such as interest groups, that according to James Madison, arise from the unequal distribution of property or wealth and have the potential to cause instability in government.

New Jersey Plan

The proposal at the Constitutional Convention that called for equal representation of each state in Congress regardless of the size of the state's population.

Virginia Plan

The proposal at the Constitutional Convention that called for representation of each state in Congress to be proportional to its population.

Writ of Habeas Corpus

A court order requiring authorities to explain to a judge what lawful reason they have for holding a prisoner in custody.

Separation of Powers

A feature of the Constitution that requires each of the three branches of government—executive, legislative, and judicial—to be relatively independent of the others so that one cannot control the others. Power is shared among these three institutions.

Federalist #51

Made by James Madison, he argues for the separation of power between branches and checks & balances. This will help prevent the concentration of power that leads to dictators and oligarchies.

Federalist #78

Written by Alexander Hamilton, he defends the power of judicial review as a basic principle of the Constitution, and argues the Judicial Branch as the weakest branch of government.

Federalist #70

Written by Alexander Hamilton, in this paper he argues for vigorous, strong, and singular executive branch. The nation needs strong leadership and when two or more people share leadership positions, there is always going to be conflict, which weakens the government.

Checks and Balances

Features of the Constitution that require each branch of the federal government to obtain the consent of the others for its actions; they limit the power of each branch.

Republic

A form of government in which the people select representatives to govern them and make laws.

Federalists

Supporters of the U.S. Constitution at the time the states were contemplating its adoption.

Federalist #10

Written by James Madison, he argues that a large republic is better capable of controlling the mischiefs of factions. Factions are inevitable and a republic will help prevent factions overpowering others.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the U.S. Constitution at the time when the states were contemplating its adoption.

Brutus 1

A paper written by an Anti-Federalist, it argues against a large republic saying it is impossible to have a stable government over such are large territory. The government would have too much power, specifically through the Necessary and Proper Clause.

Federalist Papers

The Federalist Papers are a set of 85 essays that advocate ratification of the Constitution and provide insightful commentary on the nature of the new system of government.

Bill of Rights

The first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution, drafted in response to some of the Anti-Federalists' concerns. These amendments define such basic liberties as freedom of religion, speech, and press and guarantee defendants' rights.

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

A constitutional amendment passed by Congress in 1972 stating that "equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex." The amendment failed to acquire the necessary support from three-fourths of the state legislatures.

Judicial Review

The power of the courts to determine whether acts of Congress and those of the executive branch are in accord with the U.S. Constitution. Judicial review was established by Marbury v. Madison.

Federalism

A way of organizing a nation so that two or more levels of government share formal authority over the same area and people.

Intergovernmental Relations

The entire set of interactions among national, state, and local governments- including regulations, transfers of funds, and the sharing of information- that constitute the workings of the federal system.

Supremacy Clause

The clause in Article VI of the Constitution that makes the Constitution, national laws, and treaties supreme over state laws as long as the national government is acting within its constitutional limits.

10th Amendment

The constitutional amendment stating, "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people."

Enumerated Powers

Powers of the federal government that are listed explicitly in the Constitution. For example, Article I, Section 8, specifically gives Congress the power to coin money and regulate its value and impose taxes.

Implied Powers

Powers of the federal government that go beyond those enumerated in the Constitution, in accordance with the statement in the Constitution that Congress has the power to "make all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution" the powers enumerated in Article I.

Elastic Clause

The final paragraph of Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution, which authorizes Congress to pass all laws "necessary and proper" to carry out the enumerated powers.

Gibbons v. Ogden

A landmark case decided in 1824 in which the Supreme Court interpreted very broadly the clause in Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution and defined the power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce as encompassing virtually every form of commercial activity.

Full Faith and Credit

A clause in Article IV of the Constitution requiring each state to recognize the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of all other states.

Dual Federalism

A system of government in which the states and the national government each remain supreme within their own spheres, each with different powers and policy responsibilities.

Cooperative or New Federalism

A system of government in which states and the national government share powers and policy assignments.

Project Grants

Federal categorical grant given for specific purposes and awarded on the basis of the merits of applications.

Formula Grants

Federal categorical grants distributed according to a formula specified in legislation or in administrative regulations.

Block Grants

Federal grants given more or less automatically to states or communities to support broad programs in areas such as community development and social services

Civil Liberties

The constitutional and other legal protections against government actions. Our civil liberties are formally set down in the Bill of Rights.

1st Amendment

The constitutional amendment that protects the five basic liberties: freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, and freedom to petition the government.

14th Amendment

the constitutional amendment adopted after the Civil War that states, "no state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."

Incorporation Doctrine

The legal concept under which the Supreme Court has nationalized the Bill of Rights by making most of its provisions applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment.

Establishment Clause

Part of the First Amendment stating that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion."

Free Exercise Clause

A First Amendment provision that prohibits government from interfering with the practice of religion.

Probable Clause

Reasonable grounds for believing that a person is guilty of a crime. In order to make a lawful arrest, the police must have probable cause.

Exclusionary Rule

The rule that evidence cannot be introduced into a trial if it was not constitutionally obtained. The rule prohibits use of evidence obtained through unreasonable search and seizure.

5th Amendment

A constitutional amendment designed to protect the rights of persons accused of crimes, including protection against double jeopardy, self-incrimination, and punishment without due process of law.

Civil Rights

Policies designed to protect people against arbitrary or discriminatory treatment by government officials or individuals.

Equal Protection of Law

Part of the Fourteenth Amendment emphasizing that the laws must provide equivalent "protection" to all people.

Suffrage

The legal right to vote, extended to African Americans by the Fifteenth Amendment, to women by the Nineteenth Amendment, and to 18-20 year olds by the Twenty-sixth Amendment.

Voting Rights Act 1965

A law designed to help end formal and informal barriers to African-American suffrage. Under the law, hundreds of thousands of African Americans registered to vote, and the number of African American elected officials increased dramatically.

Comparable Worth

The issue raised when women who hold traditionally female jobs are paid less than men for working at jobs requiring comparable skill.

Americans with Disabilities Act

A law passed in 1990 that requires employers and public facilities to make "reasonable accommodations" for people with disabilities and prohibits discrimination against these individuals in employment.

Affirmative Action

A policy designed to give special attention to or compensatory treatment for members of some previously disadvantaged group.

Letter from Birmingham Jail

A letter written by Martin Luther King Jr. after he had been arrested when he took part in a nonviolent march against segregation. In it he argues about the power of peaceful civil disobedience and the need to be willing to accept the consequences. He also expresses his frustration about the people who agree with change but do nothing about it.

Census

An "actual enumeration" of the population, which the Constitution requires that the government conduct every 10 years. The census is a valuable tool for understanding demographic changes.

Reapportionment

The process of reallocating seats in the House of Representatives every 10 years on the basis of the results of the census.

Political Socialization

The process through which individuals in a society acquire political attitudes, views, and knowledge, based on inputs from family, schools, the media, and others.

Random Sampling

The key technique employed by survey researchers, which operates on the principle that everyone should have an equal probability of being selected for the sample.

Exit Poll

Public opinion surveys used by major media pollsters to predict electoral winners with speed and precision.

Gender Gap

The regular pattern in which women are more likely to support Democratic candidates, in part because they tend to be less conservative than men and more likely to support spending on social services and to oppose higher levels of military spending.

Civil Disobedience

A form of political participation based on a conscious decision to break a law believed to be unjust and to suffer the consequences.

Mass Media

Television, radio, newspapers, magazines, the Internet, and other means of popular communication.

Media Event

Events that are purposely staged for the media and that are significant just because the media are there.

Investigative Journalism

The use of in-depth reporting to unearth scandals, scams, and schemes, at times putting reporters in adversarial relationships with political leaders.

Trial Balloons

Intentional news leaks for the purpose of assessing the political reaction.

Sound Bites

Short video clips of approximately 10 seconds. Typically, they are all that is shown from a politician's speech on the nightly television news.

Rational Choice Theory

A popular theory in political science to explain the actions of voters as well as politicians. It assumes that individuals act in their own best interest, carefully weighing the costs and benefits of possible alternatives.

Party Identification

A citizen's self-proclaimed preference for one party or the other.

Ticket Splitting

Voting with one party for one office and with another party for other offices.

Party Machines

A type of political party organization that relies heavily on material inducements, such as patronage, to win votes and to govern.

Patronage

One of the key inducements used by party machines. A patronage job, promotion, or contract is one that is given for political reasons rather than for merit or competence alone.

Closed Primaries

Elections to select party nominees in which only people who have registered in advance with the party can vote for that party's candidates, thus encouraging greater party loyalty.

Open Primaries

Elections to select party nominees in which voters can decide on Election Day whether they want to participate in the Democratic or Republican contests.

Blanket Primaries

Elections to select party nominees in which voters are presented with a list of candidates from all parties, and are capable of voting for each office without regard to party lines.

National Convention

The meeting of party delegates every four years to choose a presidential ticket and write the party's platform.

National Committee

One of the institutions that keeps the party operating between conventions. The national committee is composed of representatives from the states and territories.

Critical Election

An electoral "earthquake" where new issues emerge, new coalitions replace old ones, and the majority party is often displaced by the minority party. Critical election periods are sometimes marked by a national crisis and may require more than one election to bring about a new party era.

Party Realignment

The displacement of the majority party by the minority party, usually during a critical election period.

New Deal Coalition

A coalition forged by the Democrats who dominated American politics from the 1930's to the 1960's. Its basic elements were the urban working class, ethnic groups, Catholics and Jews, the poor, Southerners, African Americans, and intellectuals.

Third Parties

electoral contenders other than the two major parties. American third parties are not unusual, but they rarely win elections.

Winner-Take-All

An electoral system in which legislative seats are awarded only to the candidates who come in first in their constituencies.

Proportional Representation

An electoral system used throughout most of Europe that awards legislative seats to political parties in proportion to the number of votes won in an election.

Coalition Governments

When two or more parties join together to form a majority in a national legislature. This form of government is quite common in the multiparty systems of Europe.

Responsible Party Model

A view about how parties should work, held by some political scientists. According to the model, parties should offer clear choices to the voters and once in office, should carry out their campaign promises.

Nomination

The official endorsement of a candidate for office by a political party. Generally, success in the nomination game requires momentum, money, and media attention.

National Party Convention

The supreme power within each of the parties. The convention meets every four years to nominate the party's presidential and vice-presidential candidates and to write the party's platform.

Caucus

A system for selecting convention delegates used in about a dozen states in which voters must attend an open meeting to express their presidential preference.

Superdelegates

National party leaders who automatically get a delegate slot at the national party convention.

Frontloading

The recent tendency of states to hold primaries early in the calendar in order to capitalize on media attention.

National Primary

A proposal by critics of the caucuses and presidential primaries, which would replace these electoral methods with a nationwide primary held early in the election year.

Regional Primaries

A proposal by critics of the caucuses and presidential primaries to replace these electoral methods with a series of primaries held in each geographic region.

Party Platform

A political party's statement of its goals and policies for the next four years. The platform is drafted prior to the party convention by a committee whose members are chosen in rough proportion to each candidate's strength. It is the best formal statement of a party's beliefs.