Psychology Exam 2

how do psychologists define memory

the active, ongoing process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information or past experiences

3 steps in memory

encoding, storing, retrieving

encode

the initial, active process of perceiving, interpreting, and converting put into a neural code hat the brain can store and later retrieve

selective attention

filters distractions to focus on one stimulus d

divided attention

multitasks by splitting focus across stimuli

sustained attention

maintains focus on a single task over time

what are the different levels of processing and how do they affect memory

structural (visual), phonemic (sound), semantic (meaning)

what are examples of elaboration?

self-explanation (rephrasing concepts), elaborative interrogation (asking why/how), creating analogies, visualizing, and personalizing information

What is storage?

the retention of encoded information over time

what does it mean to store information in memory

the second core stage of the memory process—occurring after encoding and before retrieval—where the brain retains, organizes, and maintains encoded information over time

Describe the Atkinson-Shiffrin theory

states that human memory consists of three distinct, linear components: sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory

What is sensory memory and what does it accomplish

the earliest stage of memory, acting as a buffer for stimuli received through the five senses

What is the difference between echoic memory and iconic memory

iconic memory is extremely brief and holds visual snapshots—echoic memory is longer (up to ten seconds) and includes the processing of ones sentence being spoken to you

short term memory

the brain's temporary storage system that holds limited information for a short duration, typically 15–30 seconds

what does short term memory accomplish

holding immediate information for cognitive tasks—like solving problems or understanding speech—and transferring essential data to long-term memory

How does chunking increase the capacity of short-term memory

grouping individual pieces of information into smaller, manageable, and meaningful units

What is working memory

a cognitive system that acts as a temporary "mental scratchpad" or "sticky note" in the brain, allowing you to hold and manipulate information for short periods while performing tasks

Identify and describe the three components of working memory

central executive (directs attention/coordinates), phonological loop (processes auditory information), and visuospatial sketchpad (handles visual/spatial data)

What is long-term memory

the brain’s nearly permanent, high-capacity storage system that holds information, experiences, and skills for periods ranging from minutes to a lifetime

what does long term memory accomplish

it allows individuals to retain knowledge and experiences that are essential for learning and intelligence

explicit memory

the conscious, intentional recollection of factual information, previous experiences, and concepts

What is the difference between semantic memory and episodic memory?

episodic memory covers personal, autobiographical experiences linked to specific times and places, while semantic memory consists of general facts, knowledge, and meanings independent of personal experience

implicit memory

a type of long-term, unconscious memory that enables automatic, effortless performance of tasks and behaviors, such as riding a bike or typing, without active recall

procedural memory

the knowledge of how to perform tasks, skills, and habits. It is often referred to as "muscle memory" or motor skills, and it involves the automatic, unconscious retrieval of sequences of actionsp

priming

a type of implicit memory where exposure to a stimulus (a word, object, or experience) influences a person's response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious awareness of the connection

What is retrieval

the study of how information is accessed, recalled, or recognized from short-term or long-term memory, functioning as the final stage of the memory process

What does it mean to retrieve information from memory

the cognitive process of accessing, bringing forth, and utilizing stored information from long-term memory into conscious awareness

What is the serial position effect

the psychological tendency to recall the first (primacy effect) and last (recency effect) items in a series best, while middle items are recalled worst

What does the primacy effect and recency effect tell us about how the location of items affects memory

memory is highest for information at the beginning and end of a sequence, with middle items being the most forgotten. primacy (first items) recency (last items)

recall

involves accessing information without external cues, requiring deep, active search

recognition

involves identifying familiar information from options, which is faster and easier because it relies on environmental cues

What is the encoding specificity principle

memory retrieval is more effective when the context, environment, or internal state at retrieval matches that of the original encoding

Which of the following is an example of context dependent memory

remembering forgotten items by returning to the room where you first forgot them

What is an autobiographical memory?

a, complex, long-term memory system comprising personal experiences and self-related information, combining episodic details (specific events) and semantic knowledge (personal facts)

What is a flashbulb memory

a highly vivid, detailed, and "snapshot-like" memory of the circumstances surrounding when one learned of a surprising, emotionally charged, or significant event

What is a motivated forgetting

a psychological phenomenon where individuals forget unwanted, painful, or traumatic memories, either consciously or unconsciously, as a defense mechanism to reduce anxiety

what causes forgetting

lifestyle factors like stress, lack of sleep, or excessive alcohol, as well as medical issues including depression, vitamin B-12 deficiency, thyroid problems, medication side effects, or brain injuries

Describe Hermann Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve

a psychological model demonstrating that human memory retention drops exponentially within days or weeks of learning, with nearly 50% of new information lost within 24 hours

According to Ebbinghaus, when is information most likely to be forgotten

in the first hour and the first 24 hours immediately following learning

Define interference theory

forgetting occurs in long-term memory because similar memories compete and interfere with one another, making retrieval difficult

what is the difference between proactive interference and retroactive interference

proactive works forward in time (old blocks new), while retroactive works backward (new blocks old)

What is decay theory

proposes that memory traces automatically fade or weaken over time, leading to forgetting if information is not accessed or rehearsed

which of the following is an example of tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

struggling to recall a specific, rarely used word

anterograde amnesia

the inability to form new long-term memories after a neurological event, while past memories remain intact

retrograde amnesia

the loss of memories acquired before a brain injury, illness, or trauma, often affecting recent memories more than older ones

syntax

the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences in a given language, specifically regarding word order and phrase structure

semantics

the study of meaning in language, focusing on how words, signs, and symbols are interpreted, understood, and organized within the human mind

what is the minimum iq score for giftedness

130

Noam Chomsky’s theory of language development

this theory proposes that children are born with an innate biological capacity for language, rather than learning it solely through imitation

biological Influences for language development

genetic predispositions, innate brain structures (like the Language Acquisition Device), maturation of neural pathways, and factors such as gender and birth weight

environmental influences for language development

High-quality, interactive exposure—conversations, reading, and responsiveness—builds strong vocabulary and syntax, while noisy or low-stimulation environments can hinder speech processing

normal distribution

a symmetrical, bell-shaped probability distribution where most data points cluster around the mean, with frequencies decreasing toward extreme ends

What is the defintion of thinking

the mental manipulation of information—including concepts, images, and symbols—to process experiences, solve problems, make decisions, and form judgments

Describe the prototype model and provide examples

posits that individuals categorize new objects or concepts by comparing them to a "prototype"—a mental, average, or idealized representation containing the most typical features of that category

problem solving

a mental process of overcoming obstacles to achieve a goal, involving identifying the issue, planning, organizing, and evaluating results

reasoning

involve cognitive processes to draw conclusions, make decisions, and overcome obstacles

decision making

the cognitive process of evaluating alternatives, assessing risks, and selecting a course of action to solve problems

subgoals

pre-established smaller, manageable steps or milestones designed to lead toward the achievement of a larger, overarching goal

algorithms

a defined, step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution to a problem

heuristic

mental shortcuts and cognitive strategies—"rules of thumb"—that allow people to solve problems and make judgments quickly and efficiently`

functional fixedness

a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in its traditional way, hindering creative problem-solving

inductive reasoning

starts with what is specific and works to what is general

deductive reasoning

starts with what is general and works to the specific

loss aversion

a cognitive bias in behavioral economics and psychology where the pain of losing is psychologically about twice as intense as the pleasure of gaining, often leading people to prioritize avoiding losses over acquiring equivalent gains

confirmation bias

the unconscious tendency to seek, interpret, and recall information that validates existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence

hindsight bias

people falsely perceive past events as more predictable than they were, often distorting memories to align with known outcomes

availability heuristic

a mental shortcut where people judge the probability or frequency of an event based on how easily examples come to mind

base rate neglect

a cognitive bias where people focus on specific, vivid information while ignoring general, statistical prevalence

representativeness heuristic

a mental shortcut used to estimate probability by comparing a current situation, person, or object to an existing mental prototype or stereotype

triarchic theory of intelligence

proposes that intelligence is composed of three distinct facets—analytical, creative, and practical—rather than a single general factor