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Cell Division

Process where cells divide to create new cells via mitosis or meiosis.

Cell Differentiation

Cells change in structure to perform specialized functions.

Sister Chromatids

Identical copies of chromosomes joined by a centromere.

Genome

All genetic material of an organism.

Cell Cycle

Ordered series of events a cell undergoes to grow and divide.

Mitosis

Cell division resulting in genetically identical daughter cells for growth and repair.

Interphase

Growth phase where cell prepares for division, includes G1, S, and G2 phases.

Mitotic Spindle

Fibers separating sister chromatids during cell division.

Binary Fission

Asexual reproduction in prokaryotes yielding genetically identical cells.

Checkpoints

G0, G1, S, G2, M phases ensuring proper DNA replication and division.

Growth Factors

Molecules stimulating cell growth and division.

Asexual Reproduction

Offspring from a single parent, genetically identical.

Sexual Reproduction

Offspring from two parents, genetic variation.

Genes

Units of heredity on chromosomes determining traits.

Gametes

Reproductive cells (sperm, egg) with half the chromosomes for genetic variation.

Karyotype

Arrangement of an organism's chromosomes for identifying abnormalities.

Meiosis

Cell division process that reduces the chromosome number by half through two divisions, resulting in four haploid daughter cells, crucial for sexual reproduction.

Alternation of Generations

Reproductive strategy in plants and fungi involving a switch between haploid (gametophyte) and diploid (sporophyte) generations.

Sister Chromatid Cohesion

Chromatids of a chromosome held together by proteins at the centromere until separation during cell division.

Synapsis and Crossing Over

Synapsis is the pairing of homologous chromosomes during meiosis I, allowing crossing over where genetic material exchange occurs.

Independent Assortment of Chromosomes

Random orientation of homologous chromosome pairs during meiosis I, leading to diverse genetic combinations in gametes.

Recombinant Chromosomes

Chromosomes resulting from crossing over, containing a mix of genetic material from parental chromosomes, contributing to genetic diversity.

Random Fertilization

Fusion of sperm and egg cells in sexual reproduction, where chance determines which sperm fertilizes the egg, shuffling genetic makeup.

Gregor Mendel

Founder of modern genetics, discovered principles of heredity through experiments with pea plants.

Law of Segregation

Alleles for a heritable character separate during gamete formation, with each organism inheriting two gene copies that segregate randomly.

Law of Independent Assortment

Alleles of different genes segregate independently during gamete formation, leading to diverse combinations of traits in offspring.

Phenotypic ratio

Represents the distribution of different phenotypes in offspring based on their genotypes.

Dihybrid cross

A genetic cross involving two different genes that results in a 4x4 Punnett square typically showing a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio.

Multiplication Rule

States the probability of independent events occurring together, calculated as P(A and B) = P(A) * P(B).

Addition Rule of Probability

States the probability of at least one of two events happening, calculated as P(A and B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B).

Complete Dominance

Occurs when one allele completely masks the expression of another allele in an organism.

Epistasis

When one gene affects the expression of another gene, influencing the phenotypic outcome.

Polygenic Inheritance

Involves multiple genes contributing small effects to influence a single phenotypic trait.

Nature vs

Refers to the genetic makeup (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) influencing an organism's phenotype.

Pedigree Analysis

A visual tool tracing the inheritance of a trait through generations in a family.

Recessive Disorders

Caused by inheriting two recessive alleles for a gene, carriers can pass on the allele without showing symptoms.

Sickle Cell Disease

A recessive genetic disorder caused by inheriting two recessive alleles for the beta-globin gene.

Dominant Disorders

Caused by inheriting one dominant allele, leading to the expression of the disorder.

Multifactorial Disorders

Caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors.

Chromosome Theory of Inheritance

Genes are located at specific locations on chromosomes, explaining inheritance patterns.

Law of Segregation

During gamete formation, genes separate, and only one allele goes into each gamete.

Law of Independent Assortment

Genes for different traits segregate independently during gamete formation.

Sex-Linked Genes

Genes located on the sex chromosomes (X and Y).

Genetic Recombination

The process by which linked genes can be separated and shuffled during meiosis.

Genetic Map

A visual representation of the relative positions of genes on a chromosome.

Nondisjunction

An error in meiosis where chromosomes fail to separate properly, leading to genetic disorders.

Aneuploidy

A condition where an individual has an abnormal number of chromosomes (other than the normal diploid number).

Monosomy

Refers to having only one copy of a chromosome instead of the usual two, leading to a missing chromosome.

Trisomy

When an individual has three copies of a chromosome instead of the normal two, resulting in an extra chromosome.

Trisomy 21

Down syndrome, a common genetic disorder caused by having an extra copy of chromosome 21.

Alterations of Chromosome Structure

Changes in the structure of individual chromosomes rather than the total number of chromosomes.

Deletion

A section of a chromosome is missing, potentially causing loss of genes and various problems depending on the deleted genes.

Duplication

A section of a chromosome is present twice, disrupting gene balance and causing abnormal development.

Inversion

A segment of a chromosome is flipped end-to-end, affecting gene expression or recombination.

Translocation

A segment of a chromosome is moved to a different chromosome, disrupting genes on both the original and recipient chromosomes.

Aneuploidy of Sex Chromosomes

An abnormal number of sex chromosomes (X and Y) in an individual.

Disorders caused by Structurally Altered Chromosomes

Disorders resulting from alterations in chromosome structure, including deletion, duplication, inversion, and translocation.