Psych UNIT 4 ALLLL

person perception

how we form impressions of ourselves and others, including attributions of behavior.

attribution theory

The theory of how people explain others' behavior—for example, by attributing it either to internal dispositions (enduring traits, motives, and attitudes) or to external situations.

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

actor-observer bias

the tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external causes, but for observers to attribute others' behavior to internal causes.

prejudice

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

Discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

ingroup

"Us"—people with whom we share a common identity.

Outgroup

"them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor our own group

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races

attitudes

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes

persuasion

changing people's attitudes, potentially influencing their actions.

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

norms

a society's understood rules for accepted and expected behavior. Prescribe "proper" behavior in individual and social situations.

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informational social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality

Obedience

complying with an order or a command.

social facilitation

in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

tight culture

a place with clearly defined and reliably imposed norms.

loose culture

a place with flexible and informal norms.

Aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration- the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger which can generate aggression

social script

culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

mere exposure effect

the tendency for liking to increase with the frequency of exposure

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

Equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

self-disclosure

the act of revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

Altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help

Conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

GRIT

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction - a strategy designed to decrease international tensions

personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

psychodynamic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences

psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

Id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

Ego

the partly conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, the superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

superego

the partly conscious part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history

terror management theory

a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

projective test

a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics

Rorschach inkblot test

a projective test designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing how they interpret 10 inkblots

humanistic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's levels of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs. Often visualized as a pyramid, with needs nearer the base taking priority until they are satisfied.

self-actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

self-transcendence

according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

trait

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports

personality inventory

a questionnaire on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors;used to assess selected personality traits

MMPI

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders, this test is now used for many other screening purposes

empirically derived test

a test created by selecting from a pool of items those that discriminate between groups

Big Five factors

five traits---openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism---that describe personality

social cognitive perspective

a view of behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits and their social context

behavioral approach

focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

self

in modern psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions

spotlight effect

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders

self-esteem

our feelings of high or low self-worth

self-efficacy

our sense of competence and effectiveness

self-serving bias

a readiness to perceive ourselves favorably

narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption

individualism

a cultural pattern that emphasizes people's own goals over group goals and defines identity mainly in terms of unique personal attributes

collectivism

a cultural pattern that prioritizes the goals of important groups (often one's extended family or work group)

Motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

Instinct

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

Physiological Needs

a basic bodily requirement

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

Incentive

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

Affiliation need

the need to build and maintain relationships and to feel part of a group

Self-Determination Theory

the theory that we feel motivated to satisfy our needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake