Research Methods Lecture Flashcards

These flashcards cover research methods, experimental designs, sampling, validity, reliability, data analysis, and ethics based on the lecture transcript.

What are the two foundations of the scientific method?

The scientific method rests upon empirical observation and reason.

What is the first step in the research process?

Identify the problem or topic of interest.

In research, what is a hypothesis?

A precise, testable statement of what the researchers predict will be the outcome of the study.

What does a null hypothesis state?

There is no difference between two variables.

What is a non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis?

A statement that the IV will have an effect on the DV, but the direction of the effect is not predicted.

What is a directional (one-tailed) hypothesis?

A statement that the IV will have an effect on the DV and the direction of that effect is specified.

What is the definition of the Independent Variable (IV)?

The variable that manipulates the experiment and does not depend on anything.

What is the definition of the Dependent Variable (DV)?

The thing the researcher is measuring.

What are confounding variables?

Extraneous factors that affect the performance of the participants.

What is a situational variable?

A confounding variable caused by the environment.

Define experimenter variable.

When the researcher unconsciously conveys to participants how they should behave.

What is operationalisation?

Clearly defining the IV and the DV so that the study can be replicated.

What is standardisation?

The control of different aspects of an experiment so that everyone goes through the same experience.

What is required in a standardised procedure?

Each participant must be treated in the same way, doing the same task, with the same material, in the same order.

What characterizes an independent measures design?

Different participants are used in each condition of the experiment.

What characterizes a repeated measures design?

The same participants take part in each condition of the experiment.

How are participants allocated in a matched pairs design?

Different participants are used in each group, but they are matched in pairs based on variables related to the study, such as age, gender, or intelligence.

What is a primary strength of the independent measures design?

There are no order effects.

What is a weakness of the matched pairs design regarding participant withdrawal?

If one participant drops out, the researcher loses the other member of the pair as well.

What are order effects?

When someone behaves differently in a second condition because they have already gone through the first and are starting to guess the hypothesis.

Define the counterbalancing technique mentioned in the notes.

The $ABBA$ technique, where one half does the experimental condition first and the other half does the control condition first, then they switch.

What is the fatigue effect?

A type of order effect caused by boredom or tiredness.

What are demand characteristics?

Features of the experiment situation which give away the aims, potentially causing participants to change their behavior.

How is the target population defined?

The total group of individuals from which the sample might be drawn.

What is sampling bias?

When the sample does not reflect the characteristics of the target population.

What is random sampling?

A technique where every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.

What is volunteer (self-selecting) sampling?

Where participants self-select themselves and choose to take part in the research, such as by responding to an advertisement.

What is opportunity sampling?

A technique where anyone who is available and agrees to take part in the research can become a participant.

What is the most common type of sampling?

Opportunity sampling.

What is a major weakness of random sampling?

It is very hard to achieve in terms of time, money, and effort.

Why do experiments use an IV and a DV?

To measure cause and effect.

What is a strength of laboratory experiments regarding replication?

They are easier to replicate because they allow for precise control of extraneous and independent variables.

What is a major weakness of laboratory experiments?

The artificiality of the setting may produce low ecological validity, making it hard to generalise findings to real life.

What is a strength of field experiments compared to lab experiments?

They have higher ecological validity and a lower likelihood of demand characteristics affecting results.

Define validity in the context of research.

The extent to which the researcher is testing what they claim to be testing; the credibility and believability of research.

What is ecological validity?

The extent to which the findings of research in one situation would generalise to other situations, influenced by real-world relevance.

Define reliability.

The repeatability of findings; the consistency of a research study or measuring test.

What is inter-rater reliability?

The extent to which two researchers interpreting qualitative responses will produce the same records from the same data.

What is inter-observer reliability?

The consistency between two researchers watching the same event.

How does test-retest assess reliability?

By using a measure once and then using it again in the same situation to see if it yields the same results.

What is a control group?

The group that will not be affected by the Independent Variable.

What are the two main forms of self-reports?

Questionnaires and Interviews.

What are closed questions?

Questions that structure the answer by allowing only fixed responses that fit into pre-decided categories.

What is a strength of open questions?

They provide rich qualitative data and allow people to express thoughts in their own words.

Why are closed questions considered economical?

They provide large amounts of research data for relatively low costs.

What is social desirability bias in questionnaires?

When respondents lie to appear more favorable to the researcher.

What characterizes a structured interview?

Formal interviews where the questions and their order are the same for every participant.

What is a semi-structured interview?

A compromise between unstructured and structured interviews, containing some fixed questions but allowing individual-specific follow-ups.

What are case studies?

In-depth investigations of a single person, group, event, or community.

What is a major weakness of case studies regarding the general population?

The results cannot be generalised to the wider population.

What is naturalistic observation?

Watching what people do in their normal environment without interfering with the social or physical environment.

What is the difference between covert and overt observation?

In covert observation, the observer's role is not obvious; in overt observation, the role is obvious to participants.

What is the purpose of a correlation?

To measure the extent to which two variables are related.

Why should you not use the terms IV and DV in correlations?

Because correlations do not show cause and effect; variables should be called measured variables or co-variables.

What is a positive correlation?

When an increase in one variable tends to be associated with an increase in the other.

What is a zero correlation?

When there is no relationship between two variables.

Define longitudinal studies.

Research which follows up the same people at intervals over time to track their development.

What is a cross-sectional study?

A way to investigate developmental changes by comparing separate groups of people of different ages.

What is sample attrition?

The likelihood that the sample size will fall over time as participants move away or withdraw.

What is a quasi-experiment?

An experiment where the IV is naturally occurring and already exists, such as age, gender, or personality.

What is raw data?

Numerical results from an investigation before analysis.

List two strengths of quantitative data.

It is highly objective and easy to statistically analyze.

What is the primary aim of qualitative research?

To understand the social reality of individuals, groups, and cultures as nearly as possible as the participants feel or live it.

What is a weakness of qualitative data analysis?

Transcribing the data can take a long time and interpretations may be biased by the researcher's opinions.

What is the aim of descriptive statistics?

To give an accurate summary of the data.

Name the three measures of central tendency.

Mean, Mode, and Median.

How is the mean calculated?

By adding up all scores and dividing by the number of individual scores.

When is the median a better indicator than the mean?

When a set of scores has an outlier (an extreme value).

What is the mode?

The number that occurs most frequently in a group of scores.

What is the range?

The simplest measure of spread, calculated as the difference between the biggest and smallest values plus $1$.

Why is standard deviation more powerful than the range?

Because the values of all scores are taken into consideration.

Which graph is used for data in discrete categories?

Bar charts.

What is the difference between a bar chart and a histogram?

Bar charts represent categorical variables with gaps between bars; histograms represent continuous scale data with no space between columns.

What is used to display results from a correlation study?

A scatter graph.

What is the range of values for the strength of a correlation?

From $+1$ to $-1$.

What is presumptive consent?

When a researcher asks a group of people similar to the participants if they find a study acceptable to presume actual participants would agree.

What does the 'Right to Withdraw' entail?

Participants should know they can remove themselves and their data from the study at any time.

What is debriefing?

Explaining the aims and potential consequences of the study to participants at the end.

Which researchers stated that animals are 'convenient models'?

Driscoll and Bateson (1988).

In animal research, what does 'Replacement' refer to?

Considering alternatives to animal experiments, such as computer simulations.