psyc 301 ch13

Problem

An obstacle between a current state and a goal where the solution is not obvious

Problem solving

Process of determining steps needed to reach a goal

Problem space

All possible states that can be reached when solving a problem

Search approach

Solving problems by exploring possible paths in the problem space

Heuristics (problem solving)

Strategies that simplify problem solving by reducing search space

Hill-climbing strategy

Choosing the option that moves closest to the goal at each step

Limitation of hill-climbing

May require moving away from goal to reach solution

Means-end analysis

Comparing current state to goal and finding steps to reduce differences

Operators

Actions that move problem from one state to another

Importance of representation

How a problem is presented affects difficulty and solution

Mutilated checkerboard problem

Illustrates importance of how problem is framed

Analogical problem solving

Using solution to a similar problem to solve a new one

Analogical transfer

Applying knowledge from a source problem to a target problem

Source problem

A previously solved problem used for guidance

Target problem

The current problem being solved

Duncker’s radiation problem

Classic problem showing difficulty of spontaneous analogy use

Fortress story

Analog used to help solve radiation problem

Noticing analogy

Recognizing similarity between problems (most difficult step)

Mapping

Aligning elements between source and target problems

Structural features

Underlying principles of a problem

Surface features

Specific details of a problem

Analogical encoding

Comparing problems to highlight structural similarities

Expert

Highly skilled individual with extensive domain knowledge

Expert vs novice

Experts focus on structure; novices focus on surface features

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units (used by experts)

Well-defined problem

Problem with clear goals and solution steps

Ill-defined problem

Problem with unclear goals or methods

Functional fixedness

Inability to see new uses for familiar objects

Problem-solving set

Tendency to use familiar strategies even when ineffective

Einstellung effect

Rigidity in problem solving due to prior experience

Thinking outside the box

Overcoming implicit constraints in problem solving

Creative problem solving

Generating novel and useful solutions

Divergent thinking

Generating many possible solutions

Convergent thinking

Finding a single best solution

Creativity

Ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

Wallas stages of creativity

Preparation, incubation, illumination, verification

Illumination (“aha” moment)

Sudden insight into a solution

Incubation

Stepping away from a problem to allow new ideas to form

Spreading activation

Ideas activate related concepts in memory

Remote Associates Test

Measures convergent thinking ability

Forward flow

Extent to which thinking moves in new directions