Liberty University Bio 215 exam 2

Oxytocin

-Breast glands begin to produce milk and enlarge

-Strengthens the female's uterus; stretches walls of uterus

Anterior Pituitary

• Prolactin: released by AP and allows the breast glands to produce milk

• LH spikes release before the female ovulates

• FSH begins to increase during puberty in both F/M. Females stop maturing eggs to once a month. Males begin to have sperm

• GH stimulate body to grow- released during body growth and tissue repair. All cells of the body

• TSH: thyroid stimulates release or hormones (T3 and T4: INVOLVED WITH INCREASED METABOLISM)

thyroxin (T3)

releases and goes into the blood (cause it's an endocrine cell) toward the receptors toward the cells of the body and increase metabolic rate.

T3 and T4

involved with increased metabolism

Endocrine

Includes the pancreas, pituitary gland, adrenal gland, thyroid gland, and parathyroid gland

Hypothalamus

production of ADH, oxytocin, and regulatory hormones

Pineal gland

melatonin

Parathyroid glands

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Heart

1. natriuretic peptides

- atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

- brain natriuretic peptide (BNP)

Pseudohypoparathyroidism

a condition associated primarily with resistance to the parathyroid hormone

parathyroid hormone level (PTH) is

appropriately high (due to the hypocalcemia).

Disproportionate dwarfism

characterized by one or more body parts being relatively large or small in comparison to those of an average-sized adult, with growth variations in specific areas being apparent

Proportionate dwarfism

the body appears normally proportioned, but is unusually small (Mini Me)- include metabolic and hormonal disorders such as growth hormone deficiency

Mini me is a decrease in

GH as the head and extremities are all small

Gigantism is too much

GH BEFORE puberty allows the extremities to be too big

Acromegaly

hands and feet grow REALLY big and even facial features grows. It is an increase GH AFTER puberty

Dwarfism

Defined as an adult height of less than 4 feet 10 inches.

Defect in the receptors.

Legs and arms are affected the most

Two main functions of lymphatic system

Return interstitial fluid and leaked plasma proteins back to the blood.

Filters lymph of foreign material

Lymph

interstitial fluid once it has entered lymphatic vessels

Lymphatic capillaries drain

lymphatic fluid and bring fluid in between the cells (fluid = interstitial fluid)

Lymphatic capillaries are not connected to

anything

Lymphatics drain into the subclavian veins

right and left

Left subclavian vein deals with

left side of the body

Lymphatic Capillaries

Remarkably permeable.

Loosely joined endothelial mini-valves.

Withstand interstitial pressure and remain open

Mini-valves of lymphatic capillaries

- Allow interstitial fluid to enter lymph capillaries where we call the fluid Lymph

- Do not allow lymph to escape from the capillaries

Germinal centers/follicles have

T and B lymphocytes which are the armies for the immune system.

When lymph nodes swell and non-painful,

it could be cancer

Any bending parts of the body, it has a lot of

lymph nodes (wrists, ankles, elbows etc)

Lower extremities

groin has a lot of lymph nodes. All the lymph nodes collect into the sac called the cisterna kylie which go all the way up to the L subclavian.

During inflammation, lymph capillaries can absorb

- Cell debris

- Pathogens

- Cancer cells

Cells in the lymph nodes:

- Cleanse and "examine" this debris

Lacteals

- Specialized lymph capillaries present in intestinal mucosa

- Absorb digested fat and deliver chyle to the blood

- Valves prevent backflow

Fats get absorbed through the ______ and get into the _____ ______

lacteals; lymphatic system

Fat needs to be

purified

Lacteals process and

purify the fat

Other Lymphatic Cells

Macrophages

Dendritic cells

Reticular cells

Macrophages

phagocytize foreign substances and help activate T cells

Dendritic cells

spiny-looking cells with functions similar to macrophages

Reticular cells

fibroblast-like cells that produce a stroma, or network, that supports other cell types in lymphoid organs

Lymphatic trunks are formed by the

union of the largest collecting ducts

Major trunks of lymphatic include

- Paired lumbar, bronchomediastinal, subclavian, and jugular trunks

- A single intestinal trunk

Lymph is delivered into one of two large trunks

Right lymphatic duct

Thoracic duct

Right lymphatic duct

drains the right upper arm and the right side of the head and thorax

Thoracic duct

arises from the cisterna chyli and drains the rest of the body

Spleen function

removes old RBC's and is an immune organ that has sinusoids that will destroy and filter out aka white pulp.

Spleen is the

largest organ of the lymphatic system

Functions of spleen

1. Site of lymphocyte proliferation

2. Immune surveillance and response

3. Cleanses the blood

4. Site of fetal erythrocyte production (normally ceases after birth)

5. Stores blood platelets

Spleen macrophages salvage and store

iron for later use by bone marrow

Structure of the Spleen

Surrounded by a fibrous capsule, it has trabeculae that extend inward and contains lymphocytes, macrophages, and huge numbers of erythrocytes

Two distinct areas of the spleen are

White pulp

Red pulp

White pulp

area containing mostly lymphocytes suspended on reticular fibers and involved in immune functions

Red pulp

remaining splenic tissue concerned with disposing of worn-out RBCs and blood borne pathogens

Heme

degenerated in the liver to a yellow pigment called bilirubim

The liver secretes

Bilibruin

red pulp are the

RBCs

White pulp are the

WBCs

The thymus has

T and B cells

A bilobed organ that secrets hormones

thymosin and thymopoietin

The size of the thymus varies with

age

The thymus can

stop growing during adolescence and then gradually atrophies

Thymic lobes contain

outer cortex and inner medulla

The cortex contains

densely packed lymphocytes and scattered macrophages

The medulla contains fewer

lymphocytes and thymic (Hassall's) corpuscles

Thymus does not

directly fight antigens

The stroma of the thymus consists of

star-shaped epithelial cells (not reticular fibers

star-shaped thymocytes secrete the hormones that

stimulate lymphocytes to become immunocompetent

There are _____ _____ tonsils; ___ in the oral cavity

8 total; 3

Tonsils are the

simplest lymphoid organ

Tonsils

• form a ring of lymphatic tissue around the pharynx

• Location of the paired tonsils

Tonsils include

Palatine tonsils,

Lingual tonsils

Pharyngeal tonsils

Tubal tonsils

Palatine tonsils

either side of the posterior end of the oral cavity; hang down behind the palatine bone; posterior 1/3

Lingual tonsils

lie at the base of the tongue

Pharyngeal tonsil

posterior wall of the nasopharynx; back of throat; usually swell up the most; usually removed

Tubal tonsils

surround the openings of the auditory tubes into the pharynx; in the ear canal in the station tube. Cannot be seen with the naked eye

Tonsils can

sense anything foreign or dangerous to you. Allows a sore throat and enlarges. Usually a swab. Checking for strep.

Lymphoid tissue of tonsils contain

follicles with germinal centers

Tonsil masses are not

fully encapsulated

Epithelial tissue

overlying tonsil masses invaginates, forming blind-ended crypts

Crypts

trap and destroy bacteria and particulate matter

• Peyer's patches and the appendix:

- Destroy bacteria, preventing them from breaching the intestinal wall

- Generate "memory" lymphocytes for long-term immunity

Peyer's patches

- isolated clusters of lymphoid tissue, similar to tonsils

- Found in the wall of the distal portion of the small intestine

- Similar structures are found in the appendix

Aggregates of the Lymphoid Follicles

Peyer's patches and appendix

Ventilation

movement of air into and out of lungs

External respiration

gas exchange between air in lungs and blood

Gas transport

transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood

Internal respiration

Gas exchange between the blood and tissues. Happens in the internal tissues. From the blood to the internal tissues

Breathing is

voluntary; you have to choose to breathe

Respiration is specifically ____ _____

gas exchange

Respiration is specifically gas exchange from

one side of the membrane to the other side of the membrane

Secondary Respiratory System Function

-Regulation of blood pH

-Production of chemical mediators

-Voice production

- Olfaction

- Protection

Regulation of blood pH

altered by changing blood carbon dioxide levels

Production of chemical mediators

angiotensins-converting enzymes (ACE)

Voice production

movement of air past vocal folds makes sound and speech

Olfaction:

Smell occurs when airborne molecules are drawn into nasal cavity

Protection

against microorganisms by preventing entry and removing the from respiratory surfaces

Anatomy and Histology of the Respiratory System

Upper tract

Lower tract

Upper tract

nose, pharynx and associated structures

Lower tract

larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and the tubing within the lungs

Functional division of upper and lower tracts

Conducting zone

Respiratory zone

Respiratory zone

site of gas exchange between air and blood