ap psych unit 1a

Central nervous system (CNS)

Consists of the brain and spinal cord; processes information and coordinates responses.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

The network of sensory and motor neurons that connects the CNS to the rest of the body.

Autonomic nervous system

Regulates involuntary bodily functions essential for survival, like heartbeat and digestion.

Sympathetic nervous system

Activates the body's fight-or-flight response in stressful situations.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Promotes rest and recovery by calming the body after arousal.

Somatic nervous system

Controls voluntary movements by activating skeletal muscles.

Neurons

The basic building blocks of the nervous system that transmit information.

Glial cells

Support, protect, and nourish neurons; also maintain the health of the nervous system.

Reflex arc

A direct pathway that enables quick reflex actions, bypassing the brain.

Sensory neurons

Transmit sensory information (e.g., touch, pain, temperature) to the CNS.

Motor neurons

Carry signals from the CNS to muscles to facilitate movement.

Interneurons

Connect sensory and motor neurons and facilitate communication within the CNS.

Neural transmission

The process of transmitting electrical and chemical signals through neurons.

Action potential

A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron during firing.

All-or-nothing principle

A neuron either fires completely or not at all; there is no partial response.

Depolarization

The process by which a neuron's membrane potential becomes more positive.

Refractory period

The recovery time during which a neuron cannot fire again after an action potential.

Resting potential

The state of a neuron when it is not transmitting a signal, with a negative charge inside.

Reuptake

The process of neurotransmitters being reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron after signaling.

Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential.

Multiple sclerosis (MS)

A chronic disease where the immune system damages the protective covering (myelin) of nerves, disrupting communication.

Myasthenia gravis

A neuromuscular disorder causing weakness in voluntary muscles due to faulty communication at the neuromuscular junction.

Excitatory neurotransmitters

Increase the likelihood of a neuron firing (e.g., glutamate).

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing (e.g., GABA).

Dopamine

Influences mood, motivation, arousal, and movement.

Serotonin

Regulates mood, appetite, sleep, and arousal.

Norepinephrine

Plays a role in alertness and arousal; part of the fight-or-flight response.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory.

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces over-excitation in the nervous system.

Endorphins

Natural chemicals that relieve pain and promote feelings of pleasure.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter involved in the transmission of pain signals.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in learning, memory, and muscle contractions.

Hormones by gender

Hormones that influence sexual characteristics and reproduction (e.g., testosterone, estrogen, progesterone).

Adrenaline (epinephrine)

Increases energy and arousal, particularly in response to stress.

Leptin

Signals the brain to decrease appetite when the body has sufficient energy stores.

Ghrelin

A hormone that stimulates hunger and appetite.

Melatonin

Regulates sleep-wake cycles and promotes sleep.

Oxytocin

Involved in social bonding, childbirth, and lactation.

Agonists

Chemicals that enhance or mimic the action of neurotransmitters.

Antagonists

Chemicals that inhibit or block the action of neurotransmitters.

Brain stem

Connects the brain and spinal cord; controls essential life functions like breathing and heart rate.

Medulla

Regulates vital functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure.

Reticular activating system (RAS)

Regulates wakefulness and levels of consciousness.

Reward center

A brain area rich in dopamine, associated with pleasure and reinforcement.

Cerebellum

Coordinates balance, movement, and fine motor control.

Cerebral cortex

The brain's outer layer, responsible for higher-order processes like thought, perception, and decision-making.

Limbic system

A network of structures (e.g., amygdala, hippocampus) involved in emotions, memory, and motivation.

Thalamus

Relays sensory information to appropriate areas of the brain for processing.

Hypothalamus

Regulates basic drives such as hunger, thirst, and temperature; also controls the endocrine system.

Pituitary gland

The master gland that regulates growth, hormones, and other endocrine glands.

Hippocampus

Plays a key role in forming and retrieving long-term memories.

Amygdala

Involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and anger.

Corpus callosum

A thick band of neural fibers connecting the brain's two hemispheres.

Occipital lobes

Process visual information.

Temporal lobes

Process auditory information and are involved in memory.

Parietal lobes

Process sensory information like touch and spatial awareness.

Association areas

Integrate information for higher cognitive functions, such as planning and reasoning.

Somatosensory cortex

Processes sensory information like touch, pressure, and pain.

Frontal lobes

Responsible for decision-making, problem-solving, and planning.

Linguistic processing

Involves interpreting and producing language.

Higher-order thinking

Involves complex reasoning and abstract thought.

Executive functioning

Refers to high-level cognitive processes such as planning and problem-solving.

Prefrontal cortex

Responsible for executive functions like decision-making and social behavior.

Motor cortex

Controls voluntary muscle movements.

Split-brain research

Studies on individuals with severed corpus callosum to understand lateralization.

Hemispheric specialization

The idea that the brain's hemispheres perform distinct functions (e.g., left for language, right for spatial tasks).

Broca’s area

Controls the muscles involved in speech production.

Wernicke’s area

Involved in the comprehension of language.

Aphasia (Broca’s and Wernicke’s)

Broca's aphasia: Difficulty with speech production, resulting in grammatically incomplete sentences; Wernicke's aphasia: Difficulty with language comprehension, leading to nonsensical but fluent speech.

Contralateral hemispheric organization

Each brain hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body.

Plasticity

The brain's ability to reorganize and adapt by forming new neural connections.

EEG (electroencephalogram)

Measures electrical activity in the brain.

fMRI (functional MRI)

A brain imaging technique that measures blood flow to assess brain activity.

Lesioning

The removal or destruction of brain tissue to study its function.