ap psych unit 1a

1. Central nervous system (CNS): Consists of the brain and spinal cord; processes information and coordinates responses.

2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS): The network of sensory and motor neurons that connects the CNS to the rest of the body.

3. Autonomic nervous system: Regulates involuntary bodily functions essential for survival, like heartbeat and digestion.

4. Sympathetic nervous system: Activates the body's fight-or-flight response in stressful situations.

5. Parasympathetic nervous system: Promotes rest and recovery by calming the body after arousal.

6. Somatic nervous system: Controls voluntary movements by activating skeletal muscles.

7. Neurons: The basic building blocks of the nervous system that transmit information.

8. Glial cells: Support, protect, and nourish neurons; also maintain the health of the nervous system.

9. Reflex arc: A direct pathway that enables quick reflex actions, bypassing the brain.

10. Sensory neurons: Transmit sensory information (e.g., touch, pain, temperature) to the CNS.

11. Motor neurons: Carry signals from the CNS to muscles to facilitate movement.

12. Interneurons: Connect sensory and motor neurons and facilitate communication within the CNS.

13. Neural transmission: The process of transmitting electrical and chemical signals through neurons.

14. Action potential: A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron during firing.

15. All-or-nothing principle: A neuron either fires completely or not at all; there is no partial response.

16. Depolarization: The process by which a neuron's membrane potential becomes more positive.

17. Refractory period: The recovery time during which a neuron cannot fire again after an action potential.

18. Resting potential: The state of a neuron when it is not transmitting a signal, with a negative charge inside.

19. Reuptake: The process of neurotransmitters being reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron after signaling.

20. Threshold: The minimum level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential.

21. Multiple sclerosis (MS): A chronic disease where the immune system damages the protective covering (myelin) of nerves, disrupting communication.

22. Myasthenia gravis: A neuromuscular disorder causing weakness in voluntary muscles due to faulty communication at the neuromuscular junction.

23. Excitatory neurotransmitters: Increase the likelihood of a neuron firing (e.g., glutamate).

24. Inhibitory neurotransmitters: Decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing (e.g., GABA).

25. Dopamine: Influences mood, motivation, arousal, and movement.

26. Serotonin: Regulates mood, appetite, sleep, and arousal.

27. Norepinephrine: Plays a role in alertness and arousal; part of the fight-or-flight response.

28. Glutamate: A major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory.

29. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid): The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces over-excitation in the nervous system.

30. Endorphins: Natural chemicals that relieve pain and promote feelings of pleasure.

31. Substance P: A neurotransmitter involved in the transmission of pain signals.

32. Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter involved in learning, memory, and muscle contractions.

33. Hormones by gender: Hormones that influence sexual characteristics and reproduction (e.g., testosterone, estrogen, progesterone).

34. Adrenaline (epinephrine): Increases energy and arousal, particularly in response to stress.

35. Leptin: Signals the brain to decrease appetite when the body has sufficient energy stores.

36. Ghrelin: A hormone that stimulates hunger and appetite.

37. Melatonin: Regulates sleep-wake cycles and promotes sleep.

38. Oxytocin: Involved in social bonding, childbirth, and lactation.

39. Agonists: Chemicals that enhance or mimic the action of neurotransmitters.

40. Antagonists: Chemicals that inhibit or block the action of neurotransmitters.

41. Brain stem: Connects the brain and spinal cord; controls essential life functions like breathing and heart rate.

42. Medulla: Regulates vital functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure.

43. Reticular activating system (RAS): Regulates wakefulness and levels of consciousness.

44. Reward center: A brain area rich in dopamine, associated with pleasure and reinforcement.

45. Cerebellum: Coordinates balance, movement, and fine motor control.

46. Cerebral cortex: The brain's outer layer, responsible for higher-order processes like thought, perception, and decision-making.

47. Limbic system: A network of structures (e.g., amygdala, hippocampus) involved in emotions, memory, and motivation.

48. Thalamus: Relays sensory information to appropriate areas of the brain for processing.

49. Hypothalamus: Regulates basic drives such as hunger, thirst, and temperature; also controls the endocrine system.

50. Pituitary gland: The master gland that regulates growth, hormones, and other endocrine glands.

51. Hippocampus: Plays a key role in forming and retrieving long-term memories.

52. Amygdala: Involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and anger.

53. Corpus callosum: A thick band of neural fibers connecting the brain's two hemispheres.

54. Occipital lobes: Process visual information.

55. Temporal lobes: Process auditory information and are involved in memory.

56. Parietal lobes: Process sensory information like touch and spatial awareness.

57. Association areas: Integrate information for higher cognitive functions, such as planning and reasoning.

58. Somatosensory cortex: Processes sensory information like touch, pressure, and pain.

59. Frontal lobes: Responsible for decision-making, problem-solving, and planning.

60. Linguistic processing: Involves interpreting and producing language.

61. Higher-order thinking: Involves complex reasoning and abstract thought.

62. Executive functioning: Refers to high-level cognitive processes such as planning and problem-solving.

63. Prefrontal cortex: Responsible for executive functions like decision-making and social behavior.

64. Motor cortex: Controls voluntary muscle movements.

65. Split-brain research: Studies on individuals with severed corpus callosum to understand lateralization.

66. Hemispheric specialization: The idea that the brain's hemispheres perform distinct functions (e.g., left for language, right for spatial tasks).

67. Broca’s area: Controls the muscles involved in speech production.

68. Wernicke’s area: Involved in the comprehension of language.

69. Aphasia (Broca’s and Wernicke’s):

• Broca's aphasia: Difficulty with speech production, resulting in grammatically incomplete sentences.

• Wernicke's aphasia: Difficulty with language comprehension, leading to nonsensical but fluent speech.

70. Contralateral hemispheric organization: Each brain hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body.

71. Plasticity: The brain's ability to reorganize and adapt by forming new neural connections.

72. EEG (electroencephalogram): Measures electrical activity in the brain.

73. fMRI (functional MRI): A brain imaging technique that measures blood flow to assess brain activity.

74. Lesioning: The removal or destruction of brain tissue to study its function.

Parathyroid Glands: Regulates calcium and phosphate balance through parathyroid hormone (PTH).

Adrenal Glands: Regulates stress response and metabolism:

Pancreas: Regulates blood sugar levels by producing:

• Insulin

Pineal Gland: Regulates sleep-wake cycles through the hormone melatonin.

Thymus Gland: Produces thymosin, which is important for immune system function and T-cell maturation.

1. Stage 1 (NREM Sleep):

   • Light sleep, transition from wakefulness to sleep.

   • Muscles relax, heart rate and breathing slow down.

   • Lasts for a few minutes (about 5-10 minutes).

   • May experience hypnic jerks (sudden muscle contractions).

2. Stage 2 (NREM Sleep):

   • Deeper sleep, body temperature drops, heart rate slows further.

   • Sleep spindles (brief bursts of brain activity) occur.

   • Lasts for about 20 minutes.

   • Accounts for the largest portion of sleep time.

3. Stage 3 (NREM Sleep):

   • Deep sleep or slow-wave sleep.

   • Delta waves (slow brain waves) dominate.

   • Vital for restorative processes like tissue repair and immune function.

   • Hard to wake up from this stage.

4. Stage 4 (REM Sleep):

   • Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep.

   • Brain activity increases, resembling wakefulness.

   • Dreaming occurs in this stage.

   • Body muscles are temporarily paralyzed to prevent acting out dreams.

   • Heart rate and breathing become irregular.

   • Plays a key role in memory consolidation and learning.