A&P NC

what forms at site of bone break

fracture hematoma

fracture hematoma

collection of blood from vascularity of bones

how does fracture stabilize

osteoblast + chondrocytes form callus during healing

what is internal callus made of

cartilage

what is external callus made of

cartilage and bone

chondroblast

an immature cartilage cell derived from mesenchymal stem cell

chondrocyte

mature chondroblast

cartilage function

cushions bones/joints (shock/compression)

what is template for bone development

hyaline cartilage

tendon

connects muscles to bones/facilitates movement

bone reabsorption

bone breakdown via osteoclast (calcium release)

reversal state of bone remodeling

mononuclear cells appear (transition btwn reabsorption + formation)

bone formation

osteoblast create new osteoid to replenish bone that was lost

bone mineralization

osteoid mineralizes, restoring mechanical strength/support

• calcium + phosphate crystalize into collagen fibers and harden

osteoblast

bone synthesis + mineralization, differentiate into osteocytes when older

osteocytes

mature osteoblasts, maintain bone structure

osteoclasts

breaksdown bone tissue via lysosomes

spongy bone

cancellous/trabecular (porous structure)

red bone marrow

hematopoietic stem cells (produces RBC, WBC, platelets)

red bone marrow location

near end of bones

yellow bone marrow

mesenchymal stem cells (produces fat, cartilage, bone)

axial skeleton

skull and vertebral column/ribcage

appendicular skeleton

shoulder girdle (incl clavical and scapula), pelvic girdle, extremities

artifical passive immunity

medical intervention injection of immunoglobulin or antivenom

active immunity

long lasting/lifelong protection

passive immunity

immediate protection but temporary

helper t cells (CD4)

release cytokines activate and direct B cells, Tc cells, and macrophages

memory B cells

activation plasma B cells to make antibodies

memory T cells

activate cytotoxic T cells

humoral response

B cells making antibodies

igG

most abundant, enhances secondary immune response (when body reencounters pathogen)

igA

mucosal immunity (saliva, tears)

igM

1st antibody produced in response to infection (primary immune resp), forms complex w antigen and activates complement

igE

allergic rxns and parasitic infection

igD

initiates early immune response (B cell receptor)

antibodies

(humoral resp) blood protein produced to counteract specific antigens

how are Tc cells activated

antigen is presented by infected cell, Tc binds + apoptosis

how do macrophages help Tc cells

macrophage releases chemical signals, Helper T cells binds and releases signal that stimulates Tc cells

cytotoxic T cells

destroy infected cells by apoptosis (release perforins which allow lysis)

helper t cells

helps activate other WBCs via cytokines and involved in humoral (sends signals to B cells to make Ab)

1st line of defense

skin and mucous membranes

2nd line of defense

macrophages (phagocytic WBCs) and inflammatory response

mast cells

respond/assist w allergic reaction and inflammatory response

histamine

dialates BV near injury making vessels leaky (incr permeability)

complement system

nonspecific + specific defense (bridge of both), releases complement factor that allows more macrophages to site

what is mainly secreted in kidneys

H+ & NH3.. also K+ in DCT

ureters

transfer urine from kidney to bladder

reabsorption

solvent + essential solutes get recovered back to blood capillaries (peritubular)

secretion

transfer of materials from blood into renal tubular lumen

hormones are derived from

amino acids (polypeptides) or lipids (steroids)

gastrin

hormone that facilitates secretion of HCl

pancreas endocrine function

insulin and glucagon release

insulin

lowers blood glucose by putting sugar in cells or telling liver to store more glucagon

glucagon

incr blood glucose by signaling liver to release glucose

beta cells

release insulin

alpha cells

release glucagon

cortisol (glucocorticoids)

controls stress; glucose, protein, fat metabolism

aldosterone (mineralcorticoids)

sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion

epinephrine

works on heart

norepinephrine

works on blood vessels

adrenal medulla hormones

prepares sympathetic nervous sys by stimulating adrenaline in bloodstream

thymus location

below thyroid

thymosin

hormone produced by thymus that helps T cells mature

calcium funciton

nerve transmission, muscle function, blood clotting

parathyroid hormone

posterior to thyroid

thyroid gland location

between larynx and circles trachea

thyroid hormones

regulate/incr metabolic rate

hormones stored by posterior pituitary

oxytocin and ADH (vasopressin)

oxytocin

incr uterine contraction during labor + stimulates milk ejection in breast

vasopressin (ADH)

constrict blood vessels + water reabsorption

ACTH

triggers release of cortisol from adrenal cortex

TSH is released by

anterior pituitary

FSH

ova and sperm formation

LH

stimulates ovulation (females) and androgen (males)

hypothalamus makes

oxytocin and ADH

hypothalamus

control center of all endocrine systems

1st deg burn

minor inflammation/redness of epidermis

2nd deg burn

swelling, blistering, pain; epidermis to upper dermis

3rd deg burn

white/charred skin + numbness (nerve damage); epidermis + entire dermis

4th deg burn

loss of skin function; all skin layers into tissue, bone, muscles

basal cell carcinoma

abnormal, uncontrolled growth of basal cells (bottom layer of epidermis)

squamous cell carcinoma

caused by prolonged UV exposure (cancer in middle/outer layer of skin)

nail root and hair bulb growth

driven by mitosis

hair shaft

nonliving and made of keratin

sebaceous gland

waterproofs and lubricates skin/hair

thermoregulation

sweat evaporating cools the skin

hypodermis

subcutaneous tissue connecting skin to muscle tissue

adipose tissue

fat/insulation; in hypodermis

keloid

irregular fibrous tissue formed at scar site due to incr collagen production

how do scars form

if wound is in dermis later (fibrous CT develops + leaves mark)

2 layers of dermis

papillary (loose) and reticular (dense)

dermis

contains blood vessels, connective tissue, sweat glands, nerves, hair follicles

2 key proteins in dermis

collagen and elastin (made by fibroblasts)

where does keratinocytes originate

bottom of epidermis and migrates up for h2o resistance and toughness

langerhans cells

macrophages of skin; located in stratum spinosum

melanocytes

located in stratum basale; contains/produces pigment (melanin)

stratum granulosum

contains granules of lipid for waterproofing

desmosomes

provide strong adhesion between adjacent cells, especially in tissues that experience stretching or stress.

cervix

connects uterus and vagina

ejaculatory duct

formed by vas deferens and seminal vesicle