AP U.S. Government & Politics: Foundational Documents, Principles, and Court Cases

Declaration of Independence

Justified separation from Britain; natural rights.

Articles of Confederation

Legislative Branch only, need all states to amend, lacked ability to pass legislation quickly or put down uprisings→ leads to the need for the Constitution.

Constitution

Framework of U.S. government; separation of powers & federalism.

Federalist No. 10

Factions are inevitable; large republic prevents tyranny.

Brutus No. 1

Anti-Federalist; feared centralized power and loss of liberty.

Federalist No. 51

Separation of powers & checks and balances.

Federalist No. 70

Strong, single executive needed for energy & accountability.

Federalist No. 78

Independent judiciary; power of judicial review.

Letter from Birmingham Jail

Just vs. unjust laws; civil disobedience.

Separation of Powers

Division among legislative, executive, judicial branches.

Checks and Balances

Each branch can limit the powers of the others.

Federalism

Division/Sharing of power between national and state governments.

Popular Sovereignty

Power comes from the people.

Limited Government

Government is restricted by the rule of law.

Republicanism

Citizens elect representatives to make decisions.

Participatory Democracy

A model where citizens have the power to make policy decisions directly or closely influence them.

Pluralist Democracy

A model where political power is distributed among many competing interest groups.

Elitist Democracy

A model where a small group of people hold the most power and influence decisions.

Engel v. Vitale (1962)

No school-sponsored prayer; establishment clause. (1st Amendment)

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Judicial review established.

Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972)

Religious freedom > school attendance. (1st Amendment→ Free Exercise Clause)

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Supremacy clause; implied powers.

Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)

Symbolic speech protected in schools. (1st Amendment → Free Speech)

U.S. v. Lopez (1995)

Limited Congress' power under the commerce clause.

Schenck v. U.S. (1919)

"Clear and present danger" test for free speech.

Baker v. Carr (1962)

One person, one vote; justiciability of redistricting.

NY Times v. U.S. (1971)

Prior restraint violates freedom of press.

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

No racial gerrymandering.

McDonald v. Chicago (2010)

Incorporated 2nd Amendment to the states.

Brown v. Board (1954)

Segregation violates equal protection clause.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)

Right to attorney in state trials.

Congress (Legislative)

Makes laws; bicameral (House & Senate); power of the purse.

President (Executive)

Enforces laws; commander-in-chief; veto power.

Bureaucracy

Implements policies; regulated through rulemaking.

Courts (Judicial)

Interprets laws; judicial review.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Allows Congress to pass laws needed to carry out enumerated powers.

Political Parties

Organize elections and coordinate policy.

Interest Groups

Influence policy via lobbying, litigation, and electioneering.

PACs/Super PACs

Fund campaigns; Super PACs cannot coordinate directly.

Electoral College

Presidential elections; winner-takes-all system in most states.

Voter Turnout

Influenced by registration laws, education, and age.

Trustee Model of Representation

Elected officials vote in whatever manner they feel best serves their constituents.

Delegate model of representation

Elected officials act as direct representatives of their constituents, expected to vote according to their will.

Politico model of representation

A hybrid approach where representatives balance acting as both delegates and trustees, influenced by constituents but also using their own judgment.

Bill of Rights

First 10 amendments protecting individual freedoms.

14th Amendment

Provides due process and equal protection; basis for incorporation.

Selective Incorporation

Applying Bill of Rights to states via 14th Amendment's Due Process Clause.

Civil Rights Act (1964)

Banned discrimination in public places.

Voting Rights Act (1965)

Outlawed literacy tests and voter suppression tactics.

Civil Liberties

Protections FROM the government.

Civil Rights

Protections BY the government.

Purpose of Civil Liberties

Protect freedoms.

Purpose of Civil Rights

Ensure equality.

Focus of Civil Liberties

Individual freedoms.

Focus of Civil Rights

Group protections.

Legal basis for Civil Liberties

Bill of Rights.

Legal basis for Civil Rights

14th Amendment (DPC) - incorporation to the states via SCOTUS cases.

Examples of Civil Liberties

Free speech, due process, protections against unreasonable search and seizure.

Examples of Civil Rights

Employment non-discrimination laws.

Proposal for Amending the Constitution

By 2/3 of both houses of Congress or by a national convention called by 2/3 of state legislatures.

Ratification for Amending the Constitution

By 3/4 of state legislatures or by 3/4 of state ratifying conventions.

1st Amendment

Freedom of speech, religion, press, petition, and assembly.

2nd Amendment

Right to bear arms.

3rd Amendment

Government cannot force citizens to house soldiers during peacetime.

4th Amendment

Protects against unreasonable searches and seizures.

5th Amendment

Right to a jury, protection against double jeopardy, and self-incrimination.

6th Amendment

Right to a speedy and public trial, to a lawyer, and to a jury.

7th Amendment

Guarantees the right to a jury trial in federal civil cases.

8th Amendment

Prohibits excessive bail, fines, or cruel and unusual punishments.

9th Amendment

Rights not listed in the Constitution are still protected.

10th Amendment

Powers not given to the federal government nor withheld from states are reserved to the states or the people.

15th Amendment

Cannot deny vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

17th Amendment

Direct election of U.S. Senators by the people.

19th Amendment

Women's suffrage.

23rd Amendment

Residents of D.C. can vote for President.

24th Amendment

Banned poll taxes in federal elections.

26th Amendment

Voting age lowered to 18.

Judicial Activism

Judges actively interpret the Constitution and laws to reflect current conditions and values.

Judicial Restraint

Judges limit their own power and avoid overturning laws unless clearly unconstitutional.