AP Psych Unit 0

Overconfidence

The tendency to overstimulate our abilities, including our knowledge

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after we learn an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Scientific method

A method in which scientists form hypotheses from theories, conduct research, and then refine theories in the light of research observations

Theory

An explanation that organizes data and predicts observations (NOT fact)

Replication

Repeating the study to see if the basic finding extends to other participants in other circumstances

Falsifiability

The belief that for any hypothesis to have credence, it must be inherently disprovable before it can become accepted as a hypothesis

Null hypothesis

States there is no relationship between the variables studied

• the testable statement in a falsifiable scenario

Peer review

A process that takes place before a study is published to check the quality and validity of the research, and to ensure that the research contributes to its field

Meta-analysis

A procedure for statistically combining the results of many different studies

• usually done at dissertation level or graduate level to justify new research

Descriptive methods

Aims to describe behaviors/attitudes, but NOT explain them

Pros of descriptive methods

• Insight into specific cases that other use could not be studied due to ethical concerns

Cons of descriptive methods

• individual studies are hard to generalize to large populations

• Some events/circumstances cannot be replicated

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes of behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them

• must have a representative and random sampling from the population for generalization to be possible

Likert scale

Rating scale used to measure a respondent’s attitude or opinion

Pros of surveys

• can study large populations from a representative sample

• Information on a broad range of things

• Can be conducted relatively quickly

• less expensive

Cons of surveys

• Self-reporting is not always reliable

• Results are largely based on how questions are worded

• Convenience sampling

• Sampling bias

Self-report bias

Methodological problem when researchers rely on asking people to describe their thoughts/feelings/behaviors rather than measuring directly or objectively

Social desirability bias

The tendency to give socially approved answer to questions; answers that will look good but conceals their true opinions

Convenience sampling

Process of selecting a sample of individuals or cases that is neither random or systematic but rather governed by change/availability

Sampling bias

Collection of samples that do not accurately represent the entire population

Naturalistic observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situstion

Pro of naturalistic observations

Observe people/animals in real, not artificial environments

Con of naturalistic observations

No control over events or variables

Correlational

A measure if the extent to which two factors change together, and this of how well either factor predicts the other

Scatterplots

A graphed cluster of dots? Each of which represents the values of two variables

• the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (less scatter = more correlation)

Correlation coefficient

Numerical measure of the linear relationship between two variables

• measures how well either one predicts the other and how strong that relationship/prediction is (0 = no relationship)

• Represented as ±____

Effect size

Tells you how meaningful the relationship between variables or difference between groups is

• quantitative measure of the magnitude of the effect

Illusory correlation

Phenomenon of perceiving a relationship between variables (usually people, events, or behaviors) even when no relationship exists

Directionality problem

The situation where it is known that two variables are related, but it is not clear which is the cause and which is the effect

Third variable problem

When a third variable leads to a mistaken causal relationship between two variables

Pro of correlational methods

Can measure the extent of a relationship

Con of correlational methods

CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION

• just because two things are related does not mean one causes the other

Experimental method

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

Variable

Anything that can change or be changed within an experiment

Independent variable

The variable being manipulated

• the effect of the IV is the focus of the study

Dependent variable

The outcome being studied as a result of/response to the IV

• usually a behavior/mental process

Operational definition

Specific and measurable definition of the independent and dependent variables

Experimental group

Participant receiving/impacted by the independent variable

Control group

Participants that are NOT exposed to the independent variable

Random assignment

Process whereby all participants have an equal chance of assignment to any condition/group

Placebo

A substance or treatment that has no effect apart from a person’s belief in it

Placebo effect

A person receiving the placebo may report positive effects due to a belief in the drug/treatment

Single blind study

Participants do not know if they are in the experimental or control group

Double blind study

Participants not researchers know who is in the experimental or control group

Experimenter bias

Occurrence where the scientist performing the research unconsciously influence the results, in order to portray a certain outcome

Confounding variable

A third variable that influences both the independent and dependent variables