psychopathology

4 definitions of abnormality

• statistical infrequency

• deviation from social norms

• failure to function adequatley

• deviation from ideal mental health

statistical infrequency

A bvr is regarded as abnormal if it is statistically rare

• EG. being more depressed than most of the population

• About 1 in 300 (0.33%) people worldwide have schizophrenia, making it an abnormal condition/illness

how behaviour can be measured as abnormal or normal

• using a distribution graph

• to represent the proportions of a population who share a particular characterisitic

evaluation of statistical infrequency

+RWA

• used in clinical practice to assess the severity of an individuals symptoms

  • EG. intellectual disability disorder requires an IQ of below 70%. An example of statistical infrequency used an assessment tool is the Beck depression tool

  • the value of statistical infrequency criterion is useful in diagnostic and assessment processes

-INFREQUENT CHARACTERISTICS CAN BE POSITIE AND NEGATIVE

• People can have below a 70iq but also above 130 iq which isn’t considered abnormal

• similarly we wouldn’t think someone with a low depression score as abnormal

• although statistical infrequency can forms part of assessment and diagnostic procedures, it is never sufficient as the sole basis for defining abnormality

deviation from social norms

a set of unwritten rules which people use in order to abide by what is deemed ‘normal’ behaviour

• Queuing for a bus rather than pushing to the front

social norms are dependent on time and culture

• Homosexuality was deemed abnormal (and criminal) in the UK until fairly recently

• Women who were outspoken and assertive were tried as witches in England in the 17th century

• Unmarried mothers were incarcerated in mental hospitals in Ireland until well into the late 20th century

evaluation from social norms

+HELP MINIMISE HARM TO OTHERS

• E.g as a society we have decided it is important to wash our hands after going to the toilet

• this helps protect people from being exposed to viruses and bacteria

• this matters because we can help define people as abnormal if they deviate from social norms- give them help and reduce the risks to society

-CULATURAL AND SITUATIONAL RELATIVISM

• A person from one cultural group may label someone from another group as abnormal using their standards other than the persons standards

• EG the experience of hearing voices is the norm in some cultures but it would be seen as a sign of abnormality in the UK

• It is difficult to judge deviation from social norms across different situations and cultures

failure to function adequately

occurs when someone is unable to cope with ordinary demands of day to day living

FFA may struggle to

• showering frequently

• completing household chores

• paying bills and other financial commitments

FFA problems in everyday life

Increased absence from work

• a reduction in income

• job loss

Damaging effects on relationships

• increase conflict with friends and family

• people may distance themselves from the person experiencing FFA

evaluation of FFA

+REPRESENTS A SENSIBLE THRESHOLD FOR WHEN PEOPLE NEED PROFESSIONAL HELP

• 25% of people in the UK will experience a mental health problem

• However it tends to be the point that we cease to function adequately that people seek professional help or are referred for help by others

• the criterion means that treatments and services can be targeted to those who need them most

-ITS EASY TO LABEL NON STANDARD LIFESTYLES AS ABNORMAL

• not having a job or permanent address might seem like failing to function and for some people it would be

• however, people may choose to live alternative lifestyles such as irrational or dangerous behaviours

• this means that people who make unusual choices are at risk of being labelled as abnormal and their freedom of choice is limited

deviation from ideal mental health

occurs when someone doesn’t meet a set of criteria for good mental health

Johada’s model of ideal mental health

characteristics and individual should display if they have ideal mental health

• We show no symptoms or distress

• we self actualise

• we have good self esteem and lack guilt

• we can cope with stress

evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health

+HIGHLY COMPREHENESIVE- HELP PATIENTS SET CLEAR GOALS

• Patients can identify which of Jahoda’s 6 criteria are not met

• doctor can tell patients what bvrs they need to work on to achieve ideal mental health

• helps those diagnosed as abnormal achieve ideal mental health

-NOT EQUALLY APPLICABLE ACROSS A RANGE OF CULTURES

• Some of Johada’s criteria are firmly located in the context of the US and Europe

• In particular self actualisation would probably be dismissed as self indulgent in the world. Furthermore what defines success in our working and social lives is very different in cultures

• This means it is difficult to apply to the concept of ideal mental health from one culture to another

Phobias

An extreme fear of specific organisms

• irrational

Behavioural characteristics of phobias

We respond to situations by feeling high levels of anxiety and trying to escape

• Panic- in response to the presence of a phobia- may include crying, screaming

• Avoidance- person makes an effort to prevent making contact with phobic stimulus- hard to go about daily life

• Endurance- when the person chooses to be in the presence of phobic stimulus

Emotional characteristics of phobias

Refers to a person’s feelings or mood

• Anxiety- They involve an emotional response- unpleasant state of high arousal

• Fear-the immediate and extremely unpleasant response we experience when we think or encounter our phobic stimulus

• response is unreasonable- anxiety or fear experienced is much greater than abnormal

Cognitive characteristics of phobias

the processes of thinking

• Irrational beliefs- an individual may hold unfolded thoughts in relation to a phobic stimulus

• Selective attention to the phobic stimulus- If a person can see the phobic stimulus it is hard to look away from it

• Cognitive distortions- The perceptions of a person with a phobia maybe inaccurate and unrealistic

depression

A mental disorder characterised by low mood and low energy levels

Behavioural characteristics of depression

• Activity levels- reduced levels of energy - people withdraw from work, education and social life

• Disruption to sleep and eating bvr- reduced sleep or an increasing need for sleep

• Aggression or self harm- they are often irritable, and be verbally and physically agressive

Emotional characteristics of depression

• Lowered mood- feelings of sadness and lethargic

• Anger- extreme anger directed at themselves or others

• Lowered self esteem- don’t like themselves very much- self loathing

cognitive characteristics of depression

• Poor concentration- this person may find themselves unable to stick with the tasks they usually would, Hard to make decisions

• Dwelling on the negative- People are more inclined to pay more attention to negative aspects of a situation and ignore the positives

• Absolutist thinking- something is totally awful or super good- black and white thinking

OCD

A condition characterised by obsessions and compulsive bvr

Behavioural characteristics of OCD

• Compulsions are repetitive- feel compelled to repeat a bvr e.g hand washing

• Compulsions reduce anxiety- compulsive bvrs are performed in an attempt to manage the anxiety

• Avoidance- they attempt to reduce anxiety by keeping away from situations that trigger it

emotional characteristics of OCD

• Anxiety and distress- unpleasant emotional experience because of the powerful anxiety that accompanies obsessions and anxiety

• Accompanying depression- anxiety can be accompanied by low mood and lack of enjoyment

• Guilt and disgust- irrational guilt over minor moral issues or disgust directed at something like dirt

Cognitive characteristics of OCD

• Obsessive thoughts- thoughts that recur over and over again

• Cognitive coping strategies- people respond by adopting cognitive coping strategies to deal with obsessions

• Insight into excessive anxiety- people with OCD are aware that their obsessions and compulsions are not rational

two process model- explaining phobias

Assumes that bvr is learned through experience via environmental stimuli

• Bvr can be conditioned via classical conditioning and operant conditioning

• cc- explains the maintenance of phobia

  • Involves the transformation of NS into a CS

• OC- involves the role of reinforcement in bvr

  • learning via consequences

Watson and Rayne ‘ little albert study’

1. Baseline: Albert was shown several neutral stimuli (a white rat, a rabbit, masks). He showed no fear and played with them.

2. Conditioning: When Albert reached out to touch the white rat, Watson struck a steel bar with a hammer behind the boy's head, creating a loud, jarring noise.

3. Repetition: This pairing of the white rat (NS) and the loud noise (US) was repeated several times

• Conditioned Fear: Eventually, Albert began to cry and recoil at the sight of the rat alone, even without the noise.

• Generalisation: Albert’s fear spread to other similar objects he hadn't been conditioned against, such as a rabbit, a fur coat, and even a Santa Claus mask with a white beard

strengths of 2 process model

+RS - strong empirical evidence

• Little Albert study- demonstrated that a phobia of white rates can be created by pairing the animal with a frightening noise

• confirms the model- NS can become a CS through repeated associations

• High validity

+RWA

• Treatment- SD and flooding

• success of the treatments suggest the theory must be partially correct

• crucial in psychopathology

weaknesses of 2 process model

• Point: Criticised for being a "reductionist" (oversimplified) explanation that ignores evolutionary factors.

• Evidence: Seligman argued - Humans are much more likely to develop phobias of spiders, snakes, or heights than of modern dangerous objects like cars or electrical outlets.

• Explanation: The Two-Process model suggests we should be able to condition a fear of anything equally. However, we seem "pre-programmed" to fear things that were dangerous to our ancestors.

• Link: This suggests the model is incomplete, as it ignores the role of nature/evolution in favour of nurture/environment.

Systematic desensitisation- treating phobias

Involves people drawing up a hierachy of anxiety provoking situations related to a persons phobic stimulus

3 processes of SD

• The anxiety hierarchy- list of situations related to the phobic stimulus that provoke anxiety

• Relaxation- The therapist teaches the client to relax - it is impossible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time

• Exposure- the client is exposed to the phobic stimulus while in a relaxed state

Flooding- treating phobias

A behavioural therapy in which a person with a phobia is exposed to an extreme form of a phobic stimulus in order to reduce anxiety stimulus

• a small number of long therapy sessions

Evaluation of SD

+evidence of effectiveness

• Gilroy followed up 42 people who had SD for spider phobia- after 33 months the SD group were less fearful than a control group treated by relaxation exposure

• SD is effective

• This means SD is likely to be helpful for people with phobias

+Can help people with learning difficulties

• some people requiring treatment for phobias also have a learning difficulty- the alternative of SD are not suitable

• Cognitive therapies require complex rational thoughts- they may also feel distressed by the traumatic experience of flooding

• SD is often the most appropriate treatment for learning disabilities with phobias

Evaluation of flooding

+cost effective

• when providing therapies it is vital for health systems like NHS

• Flooding can work in as little as 1 session- 10 sessions for SD to achieve the same result

• more people can get treated at the same cost with flooding than with SD

-Highly unpleasant experience

• Confronting one’s phobis stimulus is an extreme form provokes tremendous anxiety

  • Schaumacher found that Pps and therapists rated flooding as significantly more stressfull than SD

  • Raises ethical issues

• therapists may avoid using this treatment

Becks negative triad

Beck proposed there are 3 kinds negative thinking that contribute to depression, negative views of

• the self

• the world

• the future

Such negative views lead a person to interpret their experiences in a negative way and so make them more vulnerable to depression

Faulty information processing

When people attend to the negative aspects of a situation and ignore positives

• Depressed people may tend towards ‘black and white’ thinking where something is either all bad or all good

negative self schema

a person interprets all information about themselves in a negative way

Evaluate becks negative triad

Point:
A strength of Beck’s Negative Triad is that it is supported by research evidence.

Evidence:
Clark and Beck (1999) found that depressed individuals consistently show more negative automatic thoughts than non-depressed individuals.

Explain:
This suggests that negative thinking patterns are linked to depression, supporting the idea that biased cognitions play a key role. Brain imaging studies also show increased activity in areas associated with rumination in depressed patients.

Link:
Therefore, research evidence strengthens the validity of Beck’s cognitive explanation

Point:
Another strength is its real-world application in therapy.

Evidence:
Beck’s theory forms the basis of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), which is widely used to treat depression and has high success rates.

Explain:
CBT works by identifying and challenging negative thoughts in the triad and replacing them with more realistic ones. The effectiveness of CBT suggests that changing negative thinking can reduce depressive symptoms.

Link:
This practical application supports the usefulness and credibility of Beck’s model

Point:
Another limitation is that Beck’s explanation ignores biological influences.

Evidence:
Research shows depression has genetic and neurochemical components, such as low serotonin levels.

Explain:
By focusing mainly on cognitive processes, Beck’s theory does not fully account for these biological factors. This suggests depression is likely explained by a combination of cognitive and biological influences.

Link:
Consequently, the negative triad may be incomplete as a standalone explanation of depression.

Ellis’ ABC model

Ellis proposed that depression when an activating event (A) triggers an irrational belief (B) which produces a consequence (C)

• used the ABC model to explain how irrational thoughts affects our behaviour and emotional state

ABC

• Activating event- according to ellis we get depressed when we experience negative events

• Beliefs- irrational belief

• Consequence- when an activating even triggers irrational beliefs there are emotional and behavioural consequences

Evaluation of Ellis’ ABC model

Point:
A strength is its successful application in therapy.

Evidence:
The ABC model forms the foundation of REBT, which has been shown to be effective in treating depression.

Explain:
REBT works by identifying irrational beliefs and actively disputing them, replacing them with more rational alternatives. The effectiveness of this therapy suggests that changing irrational beliefs can reduce depressive symptoms.

Link:
This practical success supports the usefulness and real-world value of Ellis’ model.

P – Point
A limitation is that the ABC model is too simplistic.

E – Evidence
Depression is influenced by biological factors such as low serotonin levels and genetic vulnerability.

E – Explain
This suggests that focusing only on cognition ignores other important causes of depression, meaning the model is reductionist.

L – Link
Therefore, the ABC model cannot fully explain depression on its own.

cognitive therapy

to identify and challenge negative automatic thoughts and replace them with more realistic ones

Aims of CBT

• identify irrational thoughts

• client set 'homework' to record positive events

• irrational thoughts are challenged

• The therapist can directly confront the client with evidence to highlight their irrational thoughts or to at least look for other reasons why people may have acted the way they did

Ellis' Rational Emotive Behaviour (REBT) 

• REBT extends Ellis's ABC model to ABCDE (D is for Dispute and E is for Effect)

• aims to help the client to identify and challenge irrational thoughts

• The therapist's role is to break the link between negative life effects and depression by changing the client's irrational belief

strengths of the cognitive approach of treating depression

Point: The cognitive approach is supported by evidence showing it is effective.
Evidence: Studies have found that CBT is as effective as antidepressants for many people with depression, and often more effective in preventing relapse.
Explain: This suggests that changing negative thought patterns can successfully reduce depressive symptoms.
Link: Therefore, the approach has strong empirical support, increasing its credibility

Point: It gives patients practical strategies to manage future problems.
Evidence: Clients learn to challenge negative thoughts and use behavioural techniques independently.
Explain: This reduces reliance on medication and may lower relapse rates.
Link: This makes the approach beneficial in the long term.

weaknesses of the cognitive approach of treating depression

Point: The cognitive approach may not work as well for severely depressed individuals.
Evidence: People with very low motivation may struggle to engage with therapy tasks or homework.
Explain: If someone cannot actively participate, the therapy is less effective.
Link: This limits the usefulness of the approach for all sufferers.

Point: The approach focuses mainly on thinking patterns.
Evidence: Depression is also linked to genetic and neurochemical factors, such as low serotonin levels.
Explain: By concentrating on cognition, the approach may overlook important biological causes.
Link: Therefore, it may not provide a complete explanation or treatment for depression

Genetic explanation of OCD

• OCD assumes that mental illnesses are heritable

• It is not polygenic- its a combination of genetic variations

  • Both dopamine and serotonin are neurotransmitters linked to mood, emotion and motivation

• COMT gene- deactivting dopamine- irregular levels of dopamine are implicated in OCD

• SERT GENE- affecting the transport of serotonin

  • Lower levels of serotonin activity are implicated in OCD

Lewis genetic study

• 37% of OCD patients had a parent with OCD

• 21% had a sibling with OCD

• OCD runs in the family

• Nestadt et al. (2010) found that 68% of monozygotic (MZ; identical) twins both had OCD compared to 31% of dizyogotic (DZ; non-identical) twins

evaluation of genetic explanation of OCD

Strength: Twin studies support a genetic basis for OCD.
Evidence: Nestadt et al. found higher concordance rates for OCD in identical (MZ) twins compared to non-identical (DZ) twins.
Explain: Since MZ twins share 100% of their genes and DZ twins share about 50%, higher concordance in MZ twins suggests a genetic influence.
Link: This supports the idea that OCD has an inherited component.

Weakness: Concordance rates are not 100%, even for identical twins.
Evidence: MZ twin concordance is higher than DZ twins but still well below 100%.
Explain: This shows environmental factors must also play a role.
Link: Therefore, genes alone cannot fully explain OCD.

Neural explanation of OCD

• assumes that neurotransmitters play a role in the development of the disorder

• Low or disrupted levels of serotonin have been implicated in mood disorders such as depression

• If serotonin levels are irregular/low in the frontal cortex then it is likely that someone will experience difficulty in applying logic, reason and rationality to their thoughts and behaviours

IMPAIRED COMMUNICATION BETWEEN BASAL GANGLIA AND PFC

high levels of dopamine in dsm- increase in compulsive reward seeking

evaluation of neural explanation

Strengths: Brain scan studies support the neural explanation.
Evidence: Research shows increased activity in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and caudate nucleus in people with OCD.
Explain: This suggests abnormal functioning in brain circuits linked to worry and repetitive behaviours.
Link: Therefore, brain imaging provides scientific support for the neural explanation.

Weakness: It is unclear whether brain abnormalities cause OCD.
Evidence: Brain differences could develop as a result of obsessive behaviours rather than causing them.
Explain: This makes it difficult to establish a clear causal relationship.
Link: Therefore, the neural explanation may not fully explain the origin of OCD

Drug therapy

Treatment involving drugs

• specific chemicals that have a particular effect on the functioning of the brain

SSRIS

Antidepressant drugs used to tackle low levels of serotonin

• SSRIs work by preventing (or inhibiting) the reuptake of serotonin in the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic neuron

• Prevention of reuptake makes serotonin more accessible in the brain

• More serotonin is then available to improve the transmission of messages between neurons

• SSRIs are called selective because they mainly affect serotonin, not other neurotransmitters such as dopamine

Anti anxiety drugs

BZs are anti-anxiety drugs designed to induce a feeling of calm

• BZs thus help to 'quieten' the brain by reducing neurotransmission

• This quietening effect has been linked to the reduction of obsessive thoughts in someone with OCD

strengths of drug therapies

Point: Drug therapy for OCD is supported by scientific evidence.
Evidence: SSRIs such as fluoxetine have been shown to reduce OCD symptoms in many patients compared to placebos.
Explain: SSRIs increase serotonin levels, which supports the idea that low serotonin is linked to OCD.
Link: This shows the biological treatment is effective and evidence-based.

Point: Drug therapy is practical and accessible.
Evidence: Taking medication requires less time and effort than attending regular CBT sessions.
Explain: This makes it useful for patients who struggle to engage in psychological therapy.
Link: Therefore, it is a convenient treatment option.

weaknesses of drug therapies

Point: SSRIs can cause unpleasant side effects.
Evidence: Side effects may include nausea, sleep problems, and reduced sex drive.
Explain: These can lead patients to stop taking the medication.
Link: This limits the long-term effectiveness of the treatment.

Point: Drug therapy may not address underlying issues.
Evidence: When patients stop taking SSRIs, symptoms often return.
Explain: This suggests the drugs manage symptoms rather than curing OCD.
Link: Therefore, biological treatments alone may not provide a long-term solution.