UNIT 3 - MEMORY AND LEARNING

I love psych!

process of sensation - reception

detection of sensory information in the sense organs via sensory receptors

• sensory info/stimulus energy detected by specialised neurons

process of sensation - transduction

sensory information is converted into electrochemical energy

• the brain is unable to process sensory information, so transduction happens within sensory receptors of sense organs

process of sensation - transmission

movement of electrochemical energy from the sensory receptors to the brain for interpretation

• nerves from sense organs carry electrochemical energy to specialised regions in the brain

process of perception - selection

crucial features of information are selected for further processing whilst insignificant content is disregarded

• takes place because the brain is incapable of processing all the info it receives

process of perception - organisation

selected information is categorised, allowing arrangement of meaningful pattens

• categories formed differ greatly between individuals due to prior experiences

process of perception - interpretation

meanings are assigned to the groups of patterns

• mental representations are now available to the individual

processes of memory - encoding

converting sensory information to be neurologically processed and stored in memory

process of memory - storage

retention of information within stores of memory (how long, how much)

process of memory - retrieval

movement of information from long-term store of memory to conscious awareness

multi-store model of memory (Atkinson and Shriffin, 1968) - sensory register

memory store where sensory information is briefly held before decaying/ transferring into the short-term store

sensory register: duration, capacity, encoding

duration: 0.2 to 0.4 seconds

capacity: unlimited

encoding: visual and acoustic

multi-store model of memory (Atkinson and Shriffin, 1968) - short term memory

temporary memory store for limited info received from the sensory register and the long term store

short-term memory: duration, capacity, encoding

duration: 15-30 seconds

capacity: 5-9 items

encoding: mainly acoustic

multi-store model of memory (Atkinson and Shriffin, 1968) - long-term memory

semi-permanent memory store for unlimited amount of information that sends and receives information from the short-term store

long-term memory: duration, capacity, encoding

duration: relatively permanent

capacity: unlimited

encoding: semantic

implicit memory - procedural

long term memory → skills/actions that are difficult to explain

explicit (declarative) memory

long term memory → factual information that can be expressed

explicit (declarative) - semantic memory

impersonal factual knowledge

e.g. knowing car may overheat on empty oil tank

explicit (declarative) - episodic

personally significant events

e.g. remembering the time you ran out of fuel

multi-store model of memory (Atkinson and Shriffin, 1968) - criticisms

over-reliant on rehearsal

some cases disprove theoretical flow of information

experiments used as supporting evidence aren’t ecologically valid

little is known about registers for other senses

features of the working memory model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974) - working memory model

view of the short term memory, thought to be a storage system that simultaneously holds multiple pieces of information

features of the working memory model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974) - central executive

coordinates slave systems, controls attention given to information and decision making

features of the working memory model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974) - phonological loop

temporarily stores and processes auditory (language) information + loops

phonological store → understanding speech

articulatory control process → production of speech

features of the working memory model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974) - visuospatial sketchpad

stores and manipulates visual and spatial information

features of the working memory model (Baddeley, 2000) - episodic buffer

temporarily stores consolidated information from other features and long term memory

features of the working memory model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974, Baddeley, 2000) - criticisms

central executive was not well understood

model does not explain all aspects of memory

does not explain effect of practice and time on memory

combination of visual and spatial information into one store has been questioned, plus haptic information may also be incorporated

Henry Molaison - case study: background info

experienced epileptic seizures

has surgery where his amygdala and both hippocampi were removed

memories from childhood were largely unaffected

Henry Molaison - case study: results

demonstrated difficultly in transferring info from short-term memory

had no memory of sitting the tests on daily basis yet performance improved

inability to form new memories

Henry Molaison - case study: conclusions

led to understanding that long term memory is made up of procedural and declarative memories

case indicated procedural memories are not controlled by the hippocampus/amygdala

led to understanding that hippocampus plays major role in declarative memory production

role of the cerebellum in the formation of implicit memories

brain region that forms procedural memories

role of the cerebellum in the storage of implicit memories

storage of procedural memories (learned sensorimotor skills)

role of the amygdala in formation of memories

role in formation of fear memories

role of the amygdala in storage of memories

unlikely stores memories, instead it strengthens episodic memories

types of forgetting - retrieval failure

inability to consciously recall information into the long term store due to absence of retrieval cues

types of forgetting - interference

information in the long term store cannot be received due to being disrupted by similar information

types of forgetting - proactive interference

previously stored information interferes with the retrieval of new information

e.g. pressing wrong button to ‘jump’ because of previous experience

types of forgetting - retroactive interference

new learning interferes with retrieval of previous information

e.g. coming up with a new password

types of forgetting - motivated forgetting

intentional/unintentional suppression of memories/thoughts to minimise emotional distress

types of forgetting - decay theory

when information is transferred, memory trace is established

this gradually erodes over time (active rehearsal counteracts)

short term memories mainly affected

additional processes also play a role

the role of recall, recognition and learning in memory - recall

the process of retrieving information from long-term memory without cues to aid in retrieving said information

the role of recall, recognition and learning in memory - retrieval cue

stimuli aiding in retrieval of memories

the role of recall (free, serial and cued) - free

retrieval of as much information as possible about a specific topic in any order

the role of recall (free, serial and cued) - serial

the retrieval of information in a set order

the role of recall (free, serial and cued) - cued recall

provided retrieval cues help with the retrieval of memory

levels of processing model of memory (Craik and Lockhart, 1972) - shallow processing

encoding physical information based on appearance

also known as structural encoding, via phonemic encoding

levels of processing model of memory (Craik and Lockhart, 1972) - phonemic encoding

encoding of auditory information

levels of processing model of memory (Craik and Lockhart, 1972) - deep processing

information that is encoded semantically

semantic coding: attaching meaning to information and/or linking information to pre-existing knowledge

depth of processing and retention of words in episodic memory (Craik and Tulving, 1975) - aim

determine impact that levels of processing have on recall of memory

depth of processing and retention of words in episodic memory (Craik and Tulving, 1975) - participants

24 male and female students from the University of Toronto - convenience sampling was used

depth of processing and retention of words in episodic memory (Craik and Tulving, 1975) - materials

list of 60 words, three question set, list of 180 words (including original words)

depth of processing and retention of words in episodic memory (Craik and Tulving, 1975) - IV and DV

IV: type of encoding used (structural, phonemic, semantic)
DV: number of words recalled

depth of processing and retention of words in episodic memory (Craik and Tulving, 1975) - procedure

participants were told study was testing perception (deception used)

randomly allocated into one of three conditions (encoding types)

all were provided with 60 word list, answering one question for each word

the list of 180 words were given to each participant and were required to indicate which words were part of original list

depth of processing and retention of words in episodic memory (Craik and Tulving, 1975) - questions for encoding types

structural: ‘is the word in capital letters or lower case?’

phonemic: ‘does the word rhyme with…?’

semantic: ‘does the word go in this sentence…?’

depth of processing and retention of words in episodic memory (Craik and Tulving, 1975) - key findings

participants in semantic encoding condition recalled more words than others

words semantically encoded led to higher recall accuracy

words structurally and phonemically encoded resulted in less accurate recall

depth of processing and retention of words in episodic memory (Craik and Tulving, 1975) - criticisms and limitations

deception used! details of debriefing process is unavailable, thus it is unknown if participants were told of deception and reasons for use

unclear whether depth of processing improves retrieval of information or greater effort used during encoding

rehearsal as a strategy to improve memory - maintenance rehearsal

repetition of information allows it to be held in short-term store for longer

rehearsal as a strategy to improve memory - elaborative rehearsal

allows information to be encoded into the long-term store by attaching meaning

role of repetition as seen in Ebbinghaus and the forgetting curve (1885)

memory retention over time

Ebbinghaus memorised list of nonsense syllables, then recalled list at varying intervals

used to determine what would be forgotten over time

used to support decay theory

trauma - Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)

progressive brain disease as a result of repeated traumatic brain injuries, creating problems with cognition and memory

trauma - Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) - behaviour

may cause impulsive behaviour

confusion due to memory loss

slurred speech

erratic or aggressive behaviour

may become agitated

trauma - Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) - emotion

intense mood swings

outbursts of anger

symptoms of depression

experiencing apathy

degeneration - Alzheimer’s disease

brain disease as a result of degeneration of neurone in regions involved in cognitive skills, memory formation and revival

degeneration - Alzheimer’s disease - behaviour

may become lost or disoriented

habits may change

may become more outgoing

easily agitated

may behave in aggressive manner

degeneration - Alzheimer’s disease - emotion

abrupt changes in mood

feeling fearful or suspicious

experiencing apathy

feeling anxious

feeling angry and frustrated (common in middle stage of disease)

drug induced - Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome

rare neurological disorder that is caused by vitamin B1 deficiency, leading to the degeneration of brain cells, which results in difficulties forming new memories and retrieving stored memories

drug induced - Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome - behaviour

confabulation - make up stories to fill in gaps in memory

may become agitated

repeating same questions or stories

involuntary rapid and repetitive eye movements

slurred speech, poor coordination of muscle movement, and reduced balance

drug induced - Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome - emotion

feelings of frustration

experiencing apathy

feeling anxious

classical conditioning

form of learning → existing reflex response evoked by repeated pairing of two unrelated stimuli

neutral stimulus

on its own does not elicit a reflex response

unconditioned stimulus

inherent ability to elicit reflex response

unconditioned response

reflexive reaction to specific unconditioned stimulus

conditioned stimulus

elicits a particular response due to learning

conditioned response

reflex response elicited by neutral stimulus as a consequence of learning

acquisition

stimulus generalisation

when similar stimulus to conditioned stimulus elicits same response

stimulus discrimimation

when stimulus does not elicit conditioned response because it’s slightly different from original stimulus

extinction

repeated presentation of conditioned stimulus ceases to elicit response → no longer association between conditioned and unconditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery

sudden reappearance of previously extinct conditioned response

Pavlov’s dogs (Pavlov, 1902) - aim

to investigate classical conditioning in dogs

Pavlov’s dogs (Pavlov, 1902) - subjects

dogs

Pavlov’s dogs (Pavlov, 1902) - materials

meat powder, a bell, and a Pavlovian apparatus

Pavlov’s dogs (Pavlov, 1902) - design

IV: presentation of stimuli (bell, food or both)
DV: times when dogs salivated + amount of saliva secreted

Pavlov’s dogs (Pavlov, 1902) - procedure

dogs were placed in harness + had tube inserted into cheek where saliva produced was collected + measured (Pavlovian apparatus)

1. bell was rung close to dog (no salivation) → ns

2. dog given meat powder (saliva production → us) multiple times with saliva produced each time (ur)

3. bell was rung before providing meat powder (us) multiple times with saliva produced each time (ur)

4. now when bell was sounded (neutral stimulus → cs), salivation occurred (ur → cr)

Pavlov’s dogs (Pavlov, 1902) - key findings

dogs associated neutral stimulus with reflex response → neutral response developed into conditioned response

Pavlov’s dogs (Pavlov, 1902) - criticisms and limitations

can’t generalise results to humans

dogs were exposed to unpleasant stimuli → physical and psychological harm, e.g. placing undesired substances into the mouths of dogs, such as acid + ammonia

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner, 1920) - aim

assess whether a child can be fear conditioned through visual of white rat + loud noise of hammer hitting a metal bar

if successful, to determine whether response can be extended to similar stimuli

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner, 1920) - participants

eleven-month-old boy named Albert

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner, 1920) - materials

white rat, rabbit, seal-skin coat, Santa Claus mask, metal pole + hammer

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner, 1920) - design

IV: exposure to various stimuli + pairing of stimuli
DV: observed emotional and behavioural responses displayed by the child

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner, 1920) - procedure

1. rat was placed in front of Albert, no response → ns

2. when rat was touched → metal bar was struck with hammer

3. loud noise (us) caused Albert to cry → ur

4. rat became cs → caused him to cry (cr)

5. then exposed to stimuli with shared characteristic (fur/hair)

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner, 1920) - key findings

conditioned to feel fear from sight of rat after pairings

emotional transfers from other stimuli because of similarities (soft, had hair)

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner, 1920) - contribution to psychology

humans could be classically conditioned to develop phobias

this conditioning could be generalised to similar stimuli

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner, 1920) - criticisms and limitations of the study

psychologically harmed, traumatised, likely developed lasting fear

true informed consent was not obtained → Albert’s mother was unaware of full procedure + psychological risks

sample size of one + few trials

fear level not quantified + no control

fear levels varied, he calmed when sucking thumb/ placed in other room

does not account for cognitive component of phobia

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner, 1920) - ethics

psychologically harmed, traumatised, likely developed lasting fear

true informed consent was not obtained → Albert’s mother was unaware of full procedure + psychological risks

no debrief + conditioned response was not extinguished

identification of child breaches confidentiality

operant conditioning

consequence of behaviour determines whether they will be repeated or not

• operant → any response that acts on the environment to produce a consequence

three phase model — antecedent

internal + external conditions are present immediately prior to a particular response

• stimulus that precedes particular behaviour

three phase model — behaviour

voluntary action that takes place in the presence of the stimulus

three phase model — consequence

environmental event that occurs immediately after the behaviour + affects its occurrence in future

role of reinforcers — reinforcer

a consequence (stimulus) which increases the likelihood of a behaviour