Psychology: Key Concepts in Attribution, Biases, Social Influence, and Group Dynamics

Attributions

Explanations we create for why people behave a certain way, either due to internal traits or external situations.

Dispositional attribution

Explaining behavior based on internal characteristics like personality, attitudes, or effort.

Situational attribution

Explaining behavior based on external factors like environment or circumstances.

Explanatory style

A person's habitual way of explaining events, especially successes and failures.

Optimistic explanatory style

Tendency to view negative events as temporary, specific, and not your fault.

Pessimistic explanatory style

Tendency to view negative events as permanent, widespread, and your fault.

Actor/observer bias

We explain our own behavior using situations but others' behavior using their personality.

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency to overemphasize personality and underestimate situational factors when judging others.

Self-serving bias

The tendency to take credit for success but blame external factors for failure.

Internal locus of control

Belief that your actions and decisions determine outcomes in your life.

External locus of control

Belief that outside forces like luck or fate determine outcomes.

Mere exposure effect

The tendency to develop a preference for things simply because you are familiar with them.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

When expectations about a person or situation lead to behaviors that make those expectations come true.

Social comparison

Evaluating your own abilities, achievements, or opinions by comparing yourself to others.

Upward social comparison

Comparing yourself to people who are better off, which can motivate or discourage you.

Downward social comparison

Comparing yourself to people who are worse off to feel better about yourself.

Relative deprivation

The feeling of dissatisfaction that comes from comparing yourself to others who have more.

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group that may not be accurate for all individuals.

Cognitive load

The amount of mental effort being used at a given time.

Prejudice

A negative attitude or feeling toward a group.

Discrimination

Acting on prejudice by treating people unfairly.

Implicit attitudes

Unconscious beliefs that influence behavior.

Just-world phenomenon

Belief that people get what they deserve.

Out-group homogeneity bias

Seeing members of other groups as all the same.

In-group bias

Favoring your own group over others.

Ethnocentrism

Belief that your culture is superior.

Belief perseverance

Holding onto beliefs even when evidence disproves them.

Confirmation bias

Seeking information that supports your beliefs and ignoring opposing evidence.

Cognitive dissonance

Discomfort from holding conflicting thoughts or behaviors.

Social norms

Unwritten rules about acceptable behavior in a group.

Social influence theory

How people change behavior due to others.

Normative social influence

Conforming to be liked or accepted.

Informational social influence

Conforming because you think others know better.

Persuasion

Changing attitudes through communication.

Elaboration likelihood model

Explains two routes of persuasion: central and peripheral.

Central route

Persuasion through logic and strong arguments.

Peripheral route

Persuasion through emotions or superficial cues.

Halo effect

Letting one positive trait influence overall judgment.

Foot-in-the-door technique

Starting with a small request to get a larger one later.

Door-in-the-face technique

Starting with a large request, then a smaller one.

Conformity

Adjusting behavior to match a group.

Obedience

Following orders from authority figures.

Individualism

Prioritizing personal goals over group goals.

Collectivism

Prioritizing group goals over personal goals.

Multiculturalism

Respecting and valuing different cultures.

Group polarization

Group discussion strengthens opinions.

Groupthink

Desire for harmony leads to poor decisions.

Diffusion of responsibility

Less responsibility felt in groups.

Social loafing

Putting in less effort in a group.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness in groups.

Social facilitation

Performing better on simple tasks when others are watching.

False consensus effect

Overestimating how much others agree with you.

Superordinate goals

Shared goals that require cooperation.

Social traps

Conflicts between individual and group interests.

Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists

Study behavior in workplaces.

Burnout

Extreme stress and exhaustion from work.

Altruism

Helping others without expecting reward.

Prosocial behavior

Any behavior that helps others.

Social debt

Feeling obligated after receiving help.

Social reciprocity norm

Expectation that people will return favors.

Social responsibility norm

Helping those in need.

Bystander effect

Less likely to help when others are present.

Situational variables

Environmental factors affecting behavior.

Attentional variables

Whether you notice something needing attention.

Psychodynamic theory

Behavior is driven by unconscious conflicts.

Unconscious processes

Thoughts and desires outside awareness.

Id, Ego, Superego

Id: Instincts/desires; Ego: Rational decision-maker; Superego: Moral standards.

Ego defense mechanisms

Ways to reduce anxiety from conflict.

Denial

Refusing to accept reality.

Displacement

Redirecting emotions to safer target.

Projection

Attributing your feelings to others.

Rationalization

Justifying behavior with excuses.

Reaction formation

Acting opposite of true feelings.

Regression

Reverting to childish behavior.

Repression

Pushing distressing thoughts out of awareness.

Sublimation

Channeling impulses into positive behavior.

Projective tests

Reveal unconscious thoughts through interpretation.

Preconscious mind

Thoughts easily brought to awareness.

Unconscious mind

Hidden thoughts influencing behavior.

Humanistic psychology

Focus on personal growth and potential.

Unconditional positive regard

Accepting someone without judgment.

Hierarchy of Needs

Levels of needs from basic to self-actualization.

Self-actualizing tendency

Drive to reach full potential.

Social-cognitive theory

Behavior is shaped by interaction of thoughts, behavior, and environment.

Reciprocal determinism

Interaction between person, behavior, and environment.

Self-concept

How you see yourself.

Self-efficacy

Belief in your ability to succeed.

Self-esteem

Overall sense of self-worth.

Trait theories

Personality based on stable characteristics.

Big Five theory

Five main personality traits.

Agreeableness

Being kind and cooperative.

Openness to experience

Being open to new ideas.

Extraversion

Being outgoing and social.

Conscientiousness

Being organized and responsible.

Neuroticism

Tendency toward anxiety and moodiness.

Personality inventories

Tests measuring personality traits.

Factor analysis

Statistical method to group traits.

Drive-reduction theory

Motivation to reduce discomfort and return to balance.

Homeostasis

Maintaining stable internal state.

Arousal theory

Motivation to maintain optimal alertness.