Kennedy - Civil Rights

How and why did civil rights tactics change in the early 1960s?

- Movement shifted from legal challenges (court cases) - mass direct action.

- Triggered by frustration at slow progress through courts.

- Sit-ins showed ordinary people could actively resist segregation:

+ Create tension and crisis situations.

+ Attract media attention.

+ Force federal government intervention.

Why were the Freedom Rides and what impact did they have?

- Organised by CORE to test Supreme Court rulings banning segregation in interstate travel.

- Integrated groups travelled by bus through the Deep South.

- Met with extreme violence (e.g. bus burned at Anniston, riders beaten).

- Local authorities often failed to protect them.

- Impact:

+ Generated massive national and international publicity.

+ Embarrassed the US government during the Cold War.

+ Led to Interstate Commerce Commission enforcing desegregation.

Why was violence against protesters important for the movement?

- Non-violent protesters being attacked created powerful media images.

- Highlighted the brutality of segregation.

- Gained sympathy from Northern and international audiences.

- Put pressure on politicians (especially Kennedy).

- Movement leaders (like King) deliberately used this strategy.

Why did Martin Luther King Jr. choose Birmingham for a campaign?

- Considered one of the most segregated and racist cities in America.

- SCLC needed a major success after limited earlier impact.

- Local black organisations were relatively weak = opportunity to lead.

- Authorities (e.g. Bull Connor) likely to react violently = guaranteed publicity.

- Aim: expose racism to national conscience and global audience.

What happened during the Birmingham campaign?

- Peaceful protests and marches organised.

- King arrested = wrote Letter from Birmingham Jail defending direct action.

- Initial lack of support from local black population.

- King escalated campaign by involving schoolchildren.

- Police used dogs and high-pressure fire hoses.

- Hundreds arrested = strategy to 'fill the jails'.

What were the consequences of the Birmingham campaign?

- Images of brutality shocked the world = media triumph.

- Increased national support for civil rights.

- Inspired protests across the South.

- Damaged America's global reputation during the Cold War.

- Pressured Kennedy to act ~ key step toward the 1964 Civil Rights Act.

Why were children used in the Birmingham Campaign and what was the result?

- Adult support was limited ~ movement losing momentum.

- Children were more willing to protest.

- Their treatment (arrests, violence) shocked the public even more.

- Helped generate sympathy and media attention.

- Strengthened the campaign's impact.

What were the aims and siginificance of the March on Washington?

- Aimed to:

+ Support Kennedy's Civil Rights bills.

+ Demand jobs and equality.

- Around 250,000 attended (large, peaceful demonstration).

- Included many white supporters ~ showed broad backing.

- King's 'I have a Dream' speech:

+ Appealed to American values (equality, freedom).

+ Inspired national support.

- Demonstrated effectiveness of non-violent protest.

How successful was the March on Washington?

- Seen as a major success due to size and peaceful nature.

- Improved image of the movement.

- Influenced public opinion and politicians.

- Helped build momentum for the Civil Rights Act (1964).

- However, some believed it didn't immediately change Congress.

What forms did opposition to civil rights take?

- Strong resistance from white Southerners.

- Groups involved:

+ Citizen's Councils (economic/social pressure).

+ Ku Klux Klan (violence, intimidation)

- Violence against activists and supporters.

- Business and communities resisted integration.

How did the system in the South limit civil rights progress?

- White juries often refused to convict those who attacked Black people.

- Legal system biased ~ lack of justice (e.g. Medger Evens case).

- Segregation maintained by local authorities (e.g. police chiefs like Bull Connor).

- Fear and intimidation discouraged activism.

Was racism only a Southern issue?

- No ~ racism exist in the North as well.

- Northern police contributed to tensions ~ later riots (1964-68).

- 'White flight' showed resistance to integration.

- Some Northerners supported aims but opposed protest methods.

What did public opinion reveal about Civil Rights?

- Many Americans supported gradual change, not protests.

- Freedom Rides were unpopular (majority opposed them).

- Some viewed protests as too disruptive or extreme.

- Civil Rights not always a top priority for voters.

How did politicians resist about civil rights?

- Many Americans supported gradual change, not protests.

- Freedom Rides were unpopular (majority opposed them).

- Some viewed protests as too disruptive or extreme.

- Civil Rights not always a top priority for voters.

How did politicians resist civil rights?

- Southern Democrats dominated Congress committees.

- Blocked or delayed civil rights legislation.

- Represented white voters who supported segregation.

- Some politicians (e.g. segregationist governors) openly defied integration.

How did President Kennedy respond to civil rights?

- Initially cautious ~ needed Southern political support.

- Slow to act despite growing pressure.

- Birmingham campaign pushed him to take civil rights more seriously.

- Proposed civil rights legislation (later became 1964 Act).

- Recognised racism damaged America's Cold War image.

What were the Barrier to Progress to Civil Rights with the Democratic Party?

- The 'Solid South': Sothern Democrats were the most conservative group in the party. They diluted or blocked civil rights legislation in Congress to maintain segregation.

- Voter Sentiment: Before 1963, civil rights were at the bottom of the list of voter concerns. Kennedy fear alienating Southern voters would damage his other legislative programs.

- 1960 Election: Kennedy's narrow electoral victory meant he lacked a strong mandate to push controversial social reforms.

What was Kennedy's Personal Evolution on Civil Rights?

- Early Stance: Initially, the Kennedys were not great supporters. Robert Kennedy admitted he 'didn't lose much sleep' over the issue before 1961.

- The 'Stoke of a Pen': During his 1960 campaign, JFK promised to end housing discrimination with a 'stroke of a pen', but did nothing once elected (leading to a activists mailing him pens in protest).

- Symbolic Gestures: He invited more Black guests to the White House than any predecessor to show commitment without passing laws.

How was George Wallace an opposition figures?

- Political Shift: After losing an earlier election as a moderate, Wallace became a staunch segregationist to win the Alabama governorship.

- Famous Quote: His 1963 Inaugural address declared: 'Segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever'.

- University of Alabama (1963): Wallace stood defiantly in the schoolhouse door to stop integration until Kennedy federalised the National Guard to force the issue.

How were Kennedy's Executive action impact Civil Rights?

- Employment: Kennedy established the EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunities Commission) to ensure equal hiring in the federal government and companies with federal contracts.

- Appointments: He appointed 40 African Americans to top posts and five Black federal judges, including Thurgood Marshall.

- The Courts: Robert Kennedy used the DoJ to bring 57 legal cases against illegal violations of Black voting rights in the South.

What were the reactions to the Protests & Violence relating to the Civil Rights movement?

- Initial Reluctance: The Kennedys viewed groups like SNCC as 'unnecessarily provocative' and feared Freedom Riders were unpatriotic during the Cold War.

- Mississippi (1962): When James Meredith tried to enroll at the University of Mississippi, 500 marshals were sent. In the ensuing riot, two people were short and 1/3 of marshal were injuried.

- Birmingham (1963): The 'television pictures' of Bulll Connor's brutal treatment of protesters sickened JFK and forced him to finally promote a major Civil Rights Bill.

What things related to Kennedy led the path to the 1964 Act?

- The Bill: Encouraged by the March on Washington, JFK pushed for a civil rights bill, but it remained 'stuck in Congress' at the time of his death.

- JFK's Legacy: While he struggled to get the bill through a divided Congress, his assassination in 1963 is cited as a major factor that contributed to the eventual passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

What was the Political 'Tightrope' (1961-62) relating to Civil Rights? (1)

- The Problem: JFK won by a tiny margin (approx. 113,000 votes). He relied on the 'Solid South' (Southern Democrats) to pass his 'New Frontier' legislation (e.g. healthcare, education).

- The Conflict: Southern Democrats (Dixiecrats) controlled key Congressional committees and used their power to block any civil rights bills.

What was the Political 'Tightrope' (1961-62) relating to Civil Rights? (2)

- The Strategy: Kennedy avoided 'the legislative route' early on, fearing it would be 'political suicide'. Instead, he focused on Executive Actions - things he could do without needing a vote from Congress.

- The 'Pen' Protest: Activists sent JFK thousands of pen, because he delayed signing an executive order to end housing discrimination - a promise he made during his campaign.

What were the Executive Actions & Federal Appointments done by Kennedy? (1)

- EEOC: Created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. It successfully integrated the Lockheed aircraft plant in Georgia.

- Judicial Appointments: He appointed Thurgood Marshall (the first Black SCOTUS Justice later on) to the federal bench.

What were the Executive Actions & Federal Appointments done by Kennedy? (2)

- The 'Deep South' Trade-off: To appease Southerners while making these appointments, he also appointed several segregationists to federal judgeships in the South, which later hindered civil rights legal battles.

- The Numbers: Despite the rhetoric, only 48 out of 13,649 FBI employees were Black in 1961, and most were chauffeurs. Kennedy pushed for more diverse hiring within the federal bureucruacy.

What was the Crisis Management with the case of James Meredith (1962)?

- The Event: Air Force veteran James Meredith attempted to enrol at the 'Ole Miss' (University of Mississippi).

- The conflict: Governor Ross Barnett defied a court order to admit him. A white supremacist mob of 2,500 rioted.

- Kennedy's response: Bobby Kennedy sent 500 U.S Marshals. The riot resulted in 2 death and 160 injuried marshals.

- The Escalation: JFK eventually had to send in the Mississippi National Guard and U.S Army regulars to restore order. Meredith eventually graduated under federal protection.

How was the events in Birmingham, Alabama, a turning point in 1963? (1)

- Bull Connor: The brutal treatment of protesters in Birmingham (using dogs and fire hoses) was broadcast globally. JFK stated the 'television pictures... sickened him.'

- The Moral Issue: This shifted Kennedy's view from a 'legal/political' problem to a 'moral' one.

How was the events in Birmingham, Alabama, a turning point in 1963? (2)

- The 'Stand in the Schoolhouse Door': When Governor George Wallace tried to block two Black students (Vivian Malone and James Hood) from the University of Alabama, JFK federalised the National Guard to force their entry.

What was the relationship between Kennedy and the Civil Rights Activists (SNCC & NAACP)? (1)

- Tension: The Kennedys often felt activists were 'forcing their hand'. RFK initially condemned SNCC workers for being 'unpatriotic' by exposing US racism during the Cold War.

- The Freedom Rides: The administration was frustrated by the violence the Rides provoked, but eventually used the ICC (Interstate Commerce Commission) to enforce the desegregation of bus terminals.

What was the relationship between Kennedy and the Civil Rights Activists (SNCC & NAACP)? (2)

- Roy Wilkins (NAACP): While Wilkins was often frustrated by JFK's slow pace, he noted that JFK was 'personally charming' and that Black leaders were treated with more respect at the White House than ever before.