religiosity and social groups

gender and religiosity

• Women are consistently more religious than men across denominations and faiths (Davie, 2013; Brierley, 2021).

• Statistics: 54% of women vs 41% of men say they have a religion; 38% vs 26% say religion is important (BSA, 2018).

• Women express greater interest, commitment, and spirituality (Miller & Hoffman, 1995).

reasons

Risk, Socialisation, and Roles (Miller & Hoffman)

1. Risk: Men are less risk‑averse, more willing to “risk hell” by not being religious.

2. Socialisation: Women are taught to be caring and obedient — traits valued by religion.

3. Roles: Women’s part‑time work and caregiving give them more time and emotional connection to religion (Greeley, 1992; Davie, 2013).

Paid Work (Bruce, 1996; 2011)

• Women’s religiosity linked to lower involvement in paid work.

• Secularisation moved religion to the private sphere, where women remain active.

• As women entered paid work, female piety declined (Brown, 2009).

• Churches became feminised spaces (Woodhead, 2001).

women

• Heelas & Woodhead: 80% of holistic milieu participants were female.

• Women drawn to healing, nature, and authenticity.

• Woodhead’s “individual sphere”: New Age offers identity beyond traditional roles.

• Class differences (Bruce):

  • Middle‑class women → autonomy and self‑development.

  • Working‑class women → passive beliefs (superstition, fatalism).

• Stark & Bainbridge (1985): Women join sects due to deprivation:

  • Organismic: Poor health → healing.

  • Ethical: Moral conservatism → attraction to sects.

  • Social: Poverty → community support.

• Women twice as likely as men to join sects (Bruce, 1996).

pentecostal gender paradox

• Martin (2000): Pentecostalism attracts women despite patriarchy.

• Brusco (1995; 2012): In Latin America, Pentecostalism combats machismo culture — men redirect income to families.

• Improves women’s living standards while maintaining male headship.

• Droogs (1994): Church materials promote more equal marriages.

ethnicity and religiosity

• UK = multi‑ethnic, multi‑faith society.

• Minority groups (Muslims, Hindus, Black Christians) show higher participation (Brierley, 2013).

• Modood (1994): Decline in religiosity among second‑generation immigrants.

Reasons for Ethnic Differences

• Cultural Defence (Bruce, 2002; Bird, 1999): Religion preserves identity and solidarity in hostile environments.

• Cultural Transition (Herberg, 1955; Bruce): Religion helps immigrants adapt; declines once integration occurs.

• Pryce (1979): Pentecostalism aids adaptation; Rastafarianism rejects British society.

age

• Older people more religious; under‑15s attend due to parental influence.

• Brierley (2021): Sharp decline in youth church attendance; by 2030, 15–19‑year‑olds = only 2% of churchgoers.

Reasons for Age Differences (Voas & Crockett, 2005)

1. Ageing Effect: People turn to religion as they age (Heelas, 2005).

2. Period/Cohort Effect: Historical events shape religiosity.

3. Secularisation: Each generation half as religious as the previous.

Generational Change

• Arweck & Beckford (2013): “Collapse of religious socialisation” post‑1960s.

• Decline of Sunday schools and parental transmission of faith.

• Voas (2003): Even same‑faith parents have only a 50% chance of raising religious children.

• Churchgoers increasingly older — by 2030, 40% aged 65+.