AP Psychology Unit 4 Vocabulary

actor-observer bias

the tendency to attribute one’s own actions to situational factors while attributing others’ actions to their dispositions

attribution (attribution theory)

the theory that explains how people determine the cause of behavior by attributing it to either dispositional (internal) or situational (external) factors

dispositional attributions

explanations for behavior that focus on internal traits, personality, or abilities

explanatory style

a person’s habitual way of explaining events, typically assessed along dimensions of optimism versus pessimism

external locus of control

the perception that chance or external forces beyond one’s control determine one’s fate

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition

internal locus of control

the perception that one controls their own fate

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive

person perception

the process by which individuals form impressions and make judgments about the characteristics and motives of others

relative deprivation

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment by influencing the actions of the believer and others

self-serving bias

the tendency to perceive oneself favorably and to attribute positive outcomes to internal factors and negative outcomes to external factors

situational attributions

explanations for behavior that focus on external, contextual, or environmental factors

social comparison

the process of evaluating oneself by comparing oneself to others

attitude

a feeling, often influenced by beliefs, that predisposes a person to respond in a particular way to objects, people, or events

belief perseverance

the tendency to cling to one's initial beliefs even after they have been discredited

cognitive dissonance

the mental discomfort experienced when a person’s actions and attitudes are in conflict, leading them to change either their attitudes or actions to reduce the discomfort

cognitive load

the amount of mental effort being used in the working memory at a given moment

confirmation bias

the tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members based on their group membership

ethnocentrism

the tendency to view one’s own cultural group as superior to others and to use one’s cultural norms to judge other groups

implicit attitudes

automatic, unconscious beliefs or evaluations about people, groups, or objects

ingroup

a group of people with whom one shares a common identity

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor one’s own group over others

just-world phenomenon

the tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve

other-race effect

the tendency to more easily recognize faces of one’s own race compared to those of other races

outgroup

a group of people perceived as different or apart from one’s own group

out-group homogeneity bias

the tendency to perceive members of an outgroup as more similar to one another than members of one’s ingroup

prejudice

an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members, often involving stereotyped beliefs and a predisposition to discriminatory action

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice provides an outlet for anger by allowing people to blame someone else for their problems

social identity

the part of a person’s self-concept that comes from their membership in social groups

stereotype

a generalized belief about a group of people, often applied to all members of the group

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

diffusion of responsibility

the phenomenon wherein each member of a group assumes others will take responsibility, leading to inaction

door-in-the-face technique

a persuasion strategy where a large request is made knowing it will be refused, so that the person will agree to a much smaller request

foot-in-the-door technique

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

halo effect

a cognitive bias where our overall impression of a person influences how we feel and think about their character

individualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

informational social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality

loose culture

cultures that have weak social norms and a high tolerance for deviant behavior

multiculturalism

the presence of, or support for the presence of, several distinct cultural or ethnic groups within a society

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

obedience

compliance with an order, request, or law or submission to another's authority

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

persuasion

the process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

social influence theory

the theory that powerful social influences can produce a state of hypnosis

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

social norms

understood rules for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior

social responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

tight culture

cultures that have strong social norms and a low tolerance for deviant behavior

collective unconscious

Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

denial

a defense mechanism in which an individual refuses to believe or perceive painful realities

displacement

a defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person

ego

the largely conscious, “executive” part of the personality that mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind

humanistic psychology

a perspective that emphasizes the growth potential of healthy people and the individual’s potential for personal growth

id

the part of personality that strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives; operates on the pleasure principle

personality

an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

preconscious

in Freud’s theory, thoughts and memories not currently in awareness but retrievable

projective tests

personality tests using ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious dynamics

psychoanalysis

Freud’s theory and therapy that explores unconscious motives and conflicts

psychodynamic theory

a modern approach derived from Freud emphasizing unconscious processes and childhood experiences

projection

a defense mechanism by which people attribute their own unacceptable impulses to others

rationalization

a defense mechanism that creates self-justifying explanations for behavior

reaction formation

a defense mechanism in which unacceptable impulses are transformed into their opposites

regression

a defense mechanism involving retreat to an earlier developmental stage

repression

a defense mechanism that pushes anxiety-arousing thoughts out of consciousness

Rorschach inkblot test

a projective test using inkblots to reveal inner feelings

self-actualizing tendency

the drive to fulfill one’s potential and achieve personal growth

sublimation

a defense mechanism that redirects unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities

thematic apperception test (TAT)

a projective test using storytelling about ambiguous images

unconditional positive regard

total acceptance of another person

unconscious

a reservoir of thoughts and memories outside of awareness

agreeableness

Big Five trait: compassion, cooperation, trust

behavioral approach

a personality perspective emphasizing learning through conditioning

conscientiousness

Big Five trait: organization, dependability, discipline

emotional stability

Big Five trait reflecting calmness and lack of negative emotion

empirically derived test

a test developed by identifying items that differentiate groups

extraversion

Big Five trait: sociability and assertiveness

factor analysis

statistical method for identifying clusters of related traits

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

personality test used to assess psychological disorders and traits

openness to experience

Big Five trait: creativity and willingness to try new things

personality inventories

self-report questionnaires measuring personality traits