chapter 28 revolutions and national states in the atlantic world

Who was Olympe de Gouges

originally named Marie Gouze, a French playwright and activist who advocated for women's rights and the abolition of slavery, and was executed and her works were kind of unsuccessful

• wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Citizenness

What did Olympe de Gouges write and what was it about

1791 "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen”

• women had the same rights as men did

How did Isaac Newton’s philosophies of science and human behavior impact the Enlightenment?

enlightenment thinkers wanted to discover the natural laws that governed human society just like Newton found gravitation and motion laws that governed the universe

What was the Enlightenment and when did it begin

Began in the late 17th century, it was moving away from religion and focusing on a rational analysis of the human world

What were the most influential authorities prior to the Enlightenment (3)

1) Christian theology (MOSTLY)

2) Islamic theology

3) Aristotelian philosophy

Who was John Locke, what did he attack, what did he advocate for?

english philosopher who discovered the natural laws of POLITICS

• attacked absolute monarchy and divine right

• advocated for popular sovereignty

What events John Locke’s ideals justify? (2)

1) England’s Glorious Revolution

2) England becoming a constitutional monarchy

Who was Adam Smith?

Scottish philosopher who discovered the natural laws of ECONOMICS

• supply and demand

• free market trade

Who was Baron de Montesquieu

French philosopher of political freedom and seperation of powers

Where was the center of the Enlightenment

France

What are philosophes?

“philosophers” in France who advanced rational thinking

What kind of works did philosophers like Voltaire create?

novels, dramas, and satires

• rather than formal philosophical treatises

Who was Voltaire?

French philosophe who wrote witty pieces attacking oppressive or intolerant institutions

Who did Voltaire target in his works? (2)

1) French Monarchy

2) Roman Catholic Church: held them responsible for fanaticism, intolerance, human suffering

What was Voltaire’s battle cry?

ecrasez l’infame (crush the damned thing”

What was deism and why did philosophes follow it

Deism is believing that a powerful god began the universe and it’s natural laws, but unlike supernatural teachings of Christianity, does not intervene in worldly affairs

• justifies their teachings of rational natural laws of the world

What was the Theory of Progress?

the belief that rational sciences would, over time, lead to individual freedom, equal society, and social harmony

What were effects of the Enlightenment?

1) weakened influence of religion, but didn’t destroy the church

2) secular values replaced religious ones

3) leaders intervened in the state affairs in the interest of promoting prosperity and PROGRESS

Who were some rulers that associated themselves with religion to maintain influence?

1) Chinese rulers and the “mandate of heaven”

2) French monarchs like Louis XIV and their “absolute monarchies”

3) Shah Ismail and his identification as the “12th Imam”

How did philosophes advocate for popular sovereignty?

made kings responsible for the people they governed, rather than actually challenging monarchical rule

Who wrote the Second Treatise of Civil Government and what was it about

John Locke, this argued that a government is only powerful from the consent of the governed people, and the people get to choose a ruler

• withdrawing consent gives people the right to replacing a ruler

What were the personal rights individuals wanted

life, liberty, and property

What rights did individuals grant to their rulers?

political rights

How did philosophes like Voltaire argue for freedom and equality?

1) argued against persecution of religious minorities

2) argued against rulers who censored controversial written works from being spread to the public

• France: when work was censored in France, enlightenment thinkers smuggled the books from switzerland or the netherlands across the border

3) argued against the unfair legal/social privileges that aristocrats got

Who was Jean-Jacques Rousseau

French-Swiss philosopher who argued for equality (against aristocrats who got better rights that they didn’t deserve), and that the government should reflect the general will of the people

What book is Rousseau famous for writing

The Social Contract, that outlines that authority is based on the people and how they want to be ruled

Were most enlightenment thinkers nobles or common people?

Common people

Why was the American Revolution not foreseen (5)

1) they respected british rule

2) read english books

3) visited family in england by boat

4) trade with England brought prosperity to the Americas

5) British military protected the colonists

What was the French and Indian War

a war that merged with the 7 Years War, this one was where the French and British sided with the different Native American allies

• British vs French

• Battled in Europe, India, and North America

• British won

What was the effect on the colonists of a long distance gap between the English and the Colonists?

the english imperial bureacracy weakened and became less efficient, so the colonies each had their own rules on taxation

When did american colonists become dissatisfied with British rule?

after the mid 1760s

how did the british attempt to reinstate control over the colonists?

Because the 7 Years War was really expensive, they wanted to both

1) regain control over the colonists

2) get money to pay their debts from the 7 year war

how did the colonists feel about the increased taxation?

they were subjected to taxation without representation

• the parliament believed that the Americas had to share England’s tax burden, but couldn’t have representation in parliament

what were the tax acts (4) the british imposed (and the housing one) (1)

Sugar Act: molasses and rum

Stamp Act: documents

Townshend Act: imported items

Tea Act: tea

Bonus- Quartering Act: colonists had to provide housing for British troops

What was the Bill of Rights?

a list of the rights that the consent of Parliament is required for any new taxes

• argued that parliament couldn’t do anything in the colonies that it couldn’t do in England because all Americans are protected by British law

How did the colonists rebel against unfair taxation?

1) motto: taxation without representation

2) boycotted British products (Boston Tea Party)

3) Attacked british officials

4) Continental Congress

What was the Continental Congress?

an association of colonists that organized resistance against British policies

What influence did John Locke’s ideas have on the Declaration of Independence?

individuals are born with rights, governments can rule based off the consent of the ruled

• if they wish to take down the government, they may do so as it is their right

Who were the patriots?

The majority of colonists who supported the revolution, and some fought for independence

Who were the Loyalists/Tories?

The minority (20%) of colonists who were loyal to the British monarchy

Who were the Quakers?

those who tried to stay neutral during the American Revolution, especially based in Pennsylvania

Where did the loyalties of the Native Americans lie during the american revolution and why?

Native Americans that supported PATRIOTS: relied on colonial trade

Native americans that supported LOYALISTS: did not trust colonists (east of the Mississippi River)

What advantage did the British have over the colonists (3)

1) strong imperial government

2) large navy

3) the 20% loyalist support in the colonies

Why did the Americas actually end up winning the American revolution

1) Distance: long distance between British imperial government and the colonies, difficult to ship supplies

2) Allies: colonists allied with the French, Spanish, Dutch, and Germans

3) George Washington: imaginative military leadership

4) Guerrilla Military Tactics

5) Popular support from the colonists

Where did the war for independence begin

Battle of Lexington

Where did the American Revolution end

Battle of Yorktown, british surrendered to the American and French forces under the command of George Washington in 1781

What was the Treaty at Peace of Paris

a document in which the British formally recognized American independence in 1783

What document did enlightenment thinkers help to create after the Peace of Paris treaty was finalized and the war was over

The US Constitution

How did the American Revolution differ from the French revolution?

the Americans just wanted independence, not to change any of their law or heritage

the French wanted to completely replace their “ancien regime”

What was the main causes of the French revolution

1) War Expense: the wars were expensive, 50% of revenue went towards debts from the American Revolution, and 25% went to pay their HUGE army

2) led to an increase in taxes on nobility, which normally did not have to pay taxes

What was the Estates General and what levels made them up

an assembly that represented the entire French population in decision making

1) Roman Catholic Clergy (100,000)

2) Nobles (400,000)

3) Rest of the population (24 million) serfs, peasants, residents

voting consists of one vote per estate

Who ruled during the French revolution

King Louis XVI (not to be confused with Louis XIV)

Why did King Louis XVI demand a vote from the estates general and what was it for

He couldn’t raise enough money to pay the debts of the american revolution from peasant taxation itself, so he wanted to increase taxes on French nobility as well (who was previously exempt from taxes)

• this led to him being forced to call the estates general

What happened at Louis’s Estates General session in Versaille

• he hoped that it would authorize new taxes

• instead, peasants of the third estate advocated for political and social reform, but they were outvoted

• after this the third estate collectively seceded from the estates general in June 1789

What was the National Assembly and what did they swear to do

what the third estate of the estates general was after they seceded

• swore to provide France with a new constitution

what did the national assembly do in july 1789

the mob attacked bastille (a royal jail and arsenal), seeking weapons

• the mob won after a bloody battle

• they walked around paris with a military commander’s head on a pole, spreading the news of revolution around France

What was the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

a document of political reform and popular sovereignty made by the National Assembly (similar to the declaration of independence)

• only equality for men, not women

What was the goal of the National Assembly (3 words)

liberty, equality, fraternity

After the declaration was written what did the Assembly do?

1) destroyed the old social order

2) got rid of debt and labor service debt hat peasants owed landlords

3) Completely Changed Church

• seized Church lands

• made the high-ranking clergy into regular civilians

• made them take an oath of loyalty to the state

How did the new constitution see the king

the king was a chief executive official, but didn’t have actual legislative authority and couldn’t make decisions

What government did the French become

absolute monarchy → constitutional monarchy

(men with property had the right to vote)

Why did the Assembly declare war on Austria and Prussia, and later Spain, Britain, and the Netherlands

because they were helping the French nobility restore France’s ancien regime

What was the Convention (2)

a legislative body created by the Assembly that…

1) abolished monarchy and made France a republic

2) made frequent use of the guillotine, killing enemies of the cause

Who were the royals that got killed by the Guillotine in 1793

King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette

What was Levee en masse?

a conscription that drafted all able bodied men for war

Who was Maximilien Robespierre

Leader of the Convention along with the Jacobin party, led Committee of Public Safety, “The Incorruptible”

What did Robespierre do?

1) Eliminated Christianity:

• closed churches

• forced priests to marry

2) Promoted a “cult of reason” as a secular alternative to Christianity

3) Reorganized the calendar, recognized no religious holidays

• began a new historical era starting with Year 1 (1792)

4) Allowed women more rights like property and divorcing husbands, but didn’t allow them to vote yet

What was Robespierre’s party called and what did they believe

the Jacobins, they strongly believed that France needed complete restructuring, and they created a terrifying campaign to promote their revolutions

How many people did the Jacobins execute and imprison?

executed 40 thousand, imprisoned 300 thousand

What was the period ruled by Robespierre known as

The Reign of Terror, caused lots of instability

What did the Convention do to Robespierre to end his tyranny

arrested him and his followers, and sent them to the guillotine

What was the Directory

another group of revolutionaries who were unable to solve economic and military problems of revolutionary France

• very weak, experienced many challenges to authority

who seized power after the directory (coup d’etat)

Napoleon Bonaparte

Who was Napoleon Bonaparte and what did he do

was a military leader under King Louis XVI

• drove the Austrian army out of Italy and established French rule

• invaded other lands like Egypt and India (failed, beat by the British) to get access to trade routes and the Red Sea

• set up the Consulate

What was the Consulate?

Government created by Napoleon Bonaparte once he overthrew the directory

when did napoleon crown himself emperor

1802, when he had gained enough power and control over france

how did napoleon reinstate peace over france

1) Concordat: an agreement between the Pope and state, stated that the French would continue to have a hold over church lands, but would pay the clergy’s salaries, make christianity the official religion, and bring freedom of religion to the jews and protestants

2) Civil Code: established an equal, merit-based society among men (women were still inferior under patriarchal authority)

what was the french civil code a model for

the constitutions of Canada, Quebec, and Louisiana

What aspect of the Enlightenment principles did napoleon disagree with and what were the effects

he disagreed with intellectual freedom and a representative government

therefore:

• censorship of public newspapers and free speech

• secret police that spied on people

• used propoganda to corrupt

• gave himself full authority and ignored elected bodies

when did napoleon’s army collapse

when they decided to conquer russia

• his troops captured Moscow, but the Tsar refused to surrender, so the Russians burned Moscow and the French troops

what happened at the battle of waterloo

the british defeated Napoleon’s army at last

where was napoleon exiled to

st helena

where was the only successful slave revolt

hispaniola, haiti (haitian revolution)

what was the saint-domingue

the french colony that occupied haiti

what were the 3 groups of saint-domingue

Colonials: white people (both nobles and lower class)

Gens de couleur: mulattoes, black (artisans and domestic servants)

Slaves

why did haitian plantations lose slaves and what did they do as a result

they lost slaves due to the maroons running away to form societies of their own

as a result, they imported more and more slaves from africa/caribbean, (increasing slave prices greatly)

what caused the civil war between the whites and the gen de couleur in haiti

after the french revolution, the whites wanted freedom to rule themselves but did not want the gens de couleur to have the same freedom

how did slaves get involved in the white-gens civil war

a band of slaves lead by Boukman killed white settlers and destroyed their lands

these slaves were very skilled from military experience in Africa

who was Toussaint L’ouverture

the skilled leader of the Haitian Revolution rebels

how did haiti gain independence

napoleon sent his french troops to stop the rebellions, but the slave’s resistance defeated them so they declared independence, then they put an end to slavery once and for all

what was the social structure in iberian colonies in the americas

peninsulares (iberian colonials)

creoles (euro-americans)

black slaves (mestizos and mulattoes)

what was the conflict between in the latin american iberian countries

the creoles wanted to displace the peninsulares and attain their status, so they declared independence to all spanish colonies in the americas (except puerto rico and cuba)

who was miguel hidalgo

priest who represented indigenous peoples and mestizos and rebelled against Spaniard authorities

• after his death his rebel group went on to fight for independence of mexico

who was Augustine de Iturbide

creole general who declared independence from Spain and attempted to form his own monarchy

• ultimately failed, so other creole elites formed a new republic

what did the south part of mexico do in 1838

they seceded from the Republic of Mexico, formed the Central American Federation

• later individually declared independence to make nicaragua, el salvador, etc

Who was Simon Bolivar

creole elite general who fought against Spanish rule and overcame spanish armies throughout south america

• basically the south american george washington

What was Gran Colombia

a south american republic founded by Simon Bolivar, consisted of bolivia, peru, venezuela, etc

• however it later disintegrated due to political and regional differences

how did brazil declare independence and what type of government did it first become

1) portuguese forces fled to Rio de Janeiro due to Napoleonic threats

2) when the King of Portugal returned, he left his son Pedro in charge of Brazil as regent

3) When the creoles demanded independence from Portugal, Pedro agreed and was appointed Emperor Pedro I of Brazil

• they formed a monarchy

what was the effect of independence on latin america

there was very little social change except for the peninsulares returning to Europe

they also continued slavery

who were caudillos

local strongmen in Latin america that ruled allied with the creole elites