Cog. Test 4 (Knowledge)

Conceptual Knowledge

Conceptual knowledge refers to the understanding of concepts, ideas, and principles within a particular domain. It encompasses the connections between these concepts and the ability to apply them in various contexts.

Concept

A concept is an abstract idea or a mental construct that represents a class of objects, events, or phenomena. Concepts help individuals categorize and interpret the information they encounter.

Categorization

The idea that we can decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether the object meets the definition of the category.

The problem is that not all the members of everyday categories share similar features. So, although the dictionary definition of a cup as “a small bowl-shaped container from which someone can drink something, typically having a handle” may sound reasonable, there are many objects we call “cups” that do not meet that definition.

Definitional Approach (Classical View)

The definitional approach, also known as the classical view, posits that categories can be defined by a set of necessary and sufficient conditions, which all members of a category must meet. This approach aids in understanding the structure of concepts.

Family Resemblance

In considering the process of categorization, the idea that things in a particular category resemble each other in a number of ways. This approach can be contrasted with the definitional approach, which states that an object belongs to a category only when it meets a definite set of criteria.

Graded Membership

Graded membership is the idea that categories have varying degrees of belonging, where some members are considered more typical or representative of a category than others, impacting how people identify and perceive category members.

Central Tendency

Central tendency refers to the notion that within a category, there exists a most representative member or average, around which other members are organized, influencing judgments about category membership.

Typicality

Typicality reflects how well an instance represents a category based on shared features or characteristics. Higher typicality indicates a closer alignment with the category's prototype.

Correlated Attributes

Correlated attributes are features that are commonly associated or found together within a category. Recognizing these relationships helps individuals form more accurate mental representations of categories.

Prototype

A prototype is an idealized or most representative example of a category. It embodies the most common features or attributes shared by members of that category, serving as a mental benchmark for comparison.

Prototype Approach

The idea that we decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether it is similar to a standard representation of the category, called a prototype.

Typicality Effect

The ability to judge the truth or falsity of sentences involving high-prototypical members of a category more rapidly than sentences involving low-prototypical members of a category.

When Smith and colleagues (1974) used this technique, they found that participants responded faster for objects that are high in prototypicality (like apple for the category “fruit”) than they did for objects that are low in prototypicality (like pomegranate;

Exemplar Approach

The approach to categorization in which members of a category are judged against exemplars—examples of members of the category that the person has encountered in the past.

Hierarchical Organization of Categories

Organization of categories in which larger, more general categories are divided into smaller, more specific categories. These smaller categories can, in turn, be divided into even more specific categories to create a number of levels.

(1) the superordinate level, which we will call the global level (for example, “furniture”);

(2) the basic level (for example, “table”); and

(3) the subordinate level, which we will call the specific level(for example, “kitchen table”).

Superordinate Level

(1) the superordinate level, which we will call the global level (for example, “furniture”);

Basic Level

- above: losing a lot of info

- below: little gain of info

- rosch et al 1976 -- common features experiment

- expertise shifts privilege

- experts = more specific

Subordinate Level

(3) the subordinate level, which we will call the specific level(for example, “kitchen table”).

Psychologically Privileged (Basic Level)

The basic level is often referred to as the psychologically privileged level because it is the most cognitively efficient level for categorization, often eliciting the quickest responses and providing the easiest retrieval paths for memory.

Semantic Networks

A model that represents knowledge as a network of interconnected nodes. Each node represents a concept, and the connections between nodes represent the relationships between concepts.

Collins and Quillan (1969)

- concepts are arranged in networks that represent organization in the mind

- node = category or concept

- concepts are linked by relationships (is, a, can, has)

- hierarchical structure

- moving up the network provides additional properties about a concept

Node

concept or category

Cognitive Economy

Cognitive economy is the principle that information in semantic networks is organized to minimize redundancy, ensuring that shared properties are stored at the highest relevant node, making retrieval efficient.

Spreading Activation

Spreading activation is the process by which activating one node in a semantic network leads to the activation of related nodes, facilitating faster retrieval of associated information.

Lexical Decision Task

The lexical decision task is a psychological experiment in which participants must determine whether a string of letters forms a valid word or a nonword, allowing researchers to investigate semantic processing and decision-making.

Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP)

Parallel distributed processing is a computational model of cognition that proposes that knowledge is represented in networks of interconnected units that work simultaneously to process information.

Input Units / Hidden Units / Output Units

Input units are the initial points of information in a network; hidden units perform intermediate processing; output units produce the final response, facilitating the flow of information within a model.

Error Signal

An error signal is the feedback received when a prediction in a network does not match the desired outcome. It guides the adjustment of weights in the model to improve accuracy over time.

Back Propagation

A process by which learning can occur in a connectionist network, in which an error signal is transmitted backward through the network. This backward-transmitted error signal provides the information needed to adjust the weights in the network to achieve the correct output signal for a stimulus.

Hebb's Rule

Hebb's rule is a learning principle stating that neurons that fire together wire together, highlighting how the strengthening of connections occurs due to simultaneous activation.

Graceful Degradation

A phenomenon related to neural networks where performance gradually declines rather than completely failing when parts of the system are damaged or impaired, allowing for partial functionality to be maintained.

Generalization of Learning

Connectionist networks can explain generalization of learning. Because similar concepts have similar patterns, training a system to recognize the properties of one concept (such as “canary”) also provides information about other, related concepts (such as “robin” or “sparrow”).

showcasing the adaptability of cognitive processes.

Sensory-Functional Hypothesis

Explanation of how semantic information is represented in the brain that states that the ability to differentiate living things and artifacts depends on one system that distinguishes sensory attributes and another system that distinguishes function.

Category-Specific Memory Impairment

A result of brain damage in which the patient has trouble recognizing objects in a specific category.

Double Dissociation

Double dissociation is a method used in cognitive psychology that demonstrates two separate cognitive processes or areas by showing that damage to one area affects one function while leaving another intact, and vice versa.

Embodied Cognition / Embodied Approach

Embodied cognition is the theoretical perspective that emphasizes the role of the body in shaping thoughts and cognition, asserting that cognitive processes are grounded in physical experiences.

Mirror Neurons

Mirror neurons are specialized neurons that activate both when an individual performs an action and when they observe someone else performing the same action, offering insights into social learning and empathy.

Semantic Somatotopy

semantic somatotopy is the phenomenon where different body parts are represented in the neural activation patterns associated with specific concepts, linking physical and conceptual knowledge.