Chapter 9: Language and Thought

Cognitive processes

Involves thinking, language, forming categories, problem solving, and reasoning.

Cognition

Activities that underlie all forms of thought.

Thinking

Internal, goal-directed activity involving internal manipulation of knowledge.

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

Language shapes our perceptions of reality and influences our thoughts.

Phonology

Combination of sounds to make words.

Syntax

Combination of words to make sentences.

Semantics

Communication of meaning.

Phonemes

The base of spoken language hierarchy; smallest significant sound units in speech.

Morphemes

Smallest units of language that carry meaning, like prefixes and suffixes.

Surface structure

Outward, visible form of a sentence.

Deep structure

Underlying meaning and grammatical relationships of a sentence.

Language comprehension

Understanding what another person is trying to communicate.

Pragmatics

How practical knowledge can be used to comprehend the intentions of speakers and produce effective responses.

Telegraphic speech

Reflects rudimentary speech knowledge of syntax; shown in children around 2 years old

Overgeneralization

Applying grammar rules when they don't apply; shown by preschool-aged children

Prototype

The best or most representative member of a category.

Well-defined problem

A problem with a well-stated goal and clear strategies for solution.

Ill-defined problem

A problem that lacks a clearly defined goal or strategies for solution.

Functional fixedness

The tendency to see objects and their functions in fixed, typical ways.

Algorithms

Step-by-step rules or procedures that, if applied correctly, guarantee a solution.

Heuristics

Rules of thumb used to solve problems that do not guarantee a solution.

Mental sets

Continued use of a belief system or problem-solving strategy that worked in the past.

Insight

The moment when a problem’s solution suddenly comes to mind; spontaneous

Decision making

The process of calculating and choosing from alternatives.

Framing

The way alternatives are presented; how problems/option are phrased influences decision making.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to seek out and use information that supports prior decisions or beliefs.

Belief persistence

Clinging to initial beliefs even in light of conflicting evidence.

Representative heuristic

Estimating the probability of an event based on its similarity to a known situation.

Conjunction error

Assuming multiple things are more likely to co-occur than a single event on its own.

Gambler's fallacy

Believing the probability of an event changes after a series of outcomes.

Availability heuristic

Using readily available information to make judgments.

Anchoring

Judgment influenced by initial estimates given.