Pluralism and Theology

What is theology of religion(s)?

The branch of Christian theology that looks at the relationship between Christianity and other world religions from a Christian perspective.

What can the term 'theology of religion' extend to?

The relationship between Christian thinking and those who have no affiliation to a particular religious tradition.

What issues does theology of religion deal with?

Theology of religion deals with issues such as salvation, truth, belief and practice, and dialogue between Christians and those with other beliefs.

Which writer identifies three broad perspectives within the theology of religion?

Alan Race in his work 'Christians and Religious Pluralism' (1982) calls them:

• Exclusivism

• Inclusivism

• Pluralism

How are these three broad perspectives within the theology of religion best understood as?

As these classification have subdivisions within them, they might be best understood as positions on a spectrum of theology rather than three distinct views.

What is exclusivism?

The view that only one religion offers the complete means of salvation.

What is exclusivism from a Christian perspective?

In Christianity, exclusivism is the view that people must have explicit faith in Jesus as the Son of God, and have to believe that salvation is found in Jesus, otherwise they cannot be saved.

What do exclusivists argue about Jesus' life?

Exclusivists argue that Jesus' sacrificial death on the cross and Resurrection were real events of cosmic significance for all humanity. They reject the idea that there might be other ways to salvation without belief in the saving act of Christ.

What must a person do to be saved according to exclusivism?

They must hear the gospel, respond in faith to Christ, and often receive baptism, symbolising cleansing from sin and rebirth into Christian life.

How does exclusivism understand the role of the Church?

Salvation involves turning away from an old way of life and beginning a new life centred on Christ and his Church.

Do some exclusivists believe that truth can be found in other religions?

Some exclusivists believe that partial truth can be found in other religious traditions, but not enough for salvation.

What is particularism?

An alternative name for exclusivism meaning that salvation can only be found in one particular way.

Why do some Christians prefer the term particularism instead of exclusivism?

Because exclusivism can sound hostile or arrogant, whereas particularism emphasises Christianity's specific saving role without negative connotations.

What is a biblical quote which supports exclusivism?

"I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me" - John 14:6

Who was Hendrik Kraemer?

A 20th-century Christian exclusivist and missionary theologian.

What did the exclusivist Hendrik Kraemer argue about salvation?

Kraemer argued that salvation is only for Christians, although God's revelation can be seen by people outside the Christian faith. He argued that religions have to be understood as a whole and it does not make sense to say that some aspects of a religion are true. Either a religion accepts the salvation offered by Christ, or it does not.

What did Kraemer argue about non-Christian religions?

They cannot bring salvation and are human cultural constructs, not responses to divine revelation.

Did Kraemer think non-Christians could know God at all?

Yes, through reason and nature, but not salvation.

Why did Kraemer reject "points of contact" between religions?

Kraemer held that religions are complete, self-contained systems, each shaped by its own worldview and understanding of reality. Because of this, beliefs or practices cannot be isolated and compared as "common points" without distorting their meaning. This reinforced his rejection of "points of contact," which he saw as oversimplifying and misrepresenting whole religious systems.

Why is Karl Barth usually classed as an exclusivist?

He believed God can only be known through Jesus Christ, not through human effort.

What is Barth's theology of the Word?

God reveals knowledge of himself through three forms of the Word:

1. Jesus Christ - the living Word of God

2. The Bible - the word of God as a witness to the truth of God in Christ.

3. The Church's preaching

Why is Jesus the ultimate Word for Barth?

Jesus is God's self-revelation in human form, fully reliable and unique.

How does Barth view other religions?

Human attempts to reach God fail, even if sincere or morally good.

Why do some argue Barth is not fully exclusivist?

He allows that God may reveal himself whenever and however he chooses, potentially beyond Christianity.

Within exclusivism, what are the two different shades of opinion?

Narrow and Broad Exclusivists.

What is meant by narrow exclusivism?

The belief that only certain Christians, often within a specific denomination, will be saved.

Which theologians supported narrow exclusivism?

Augustine (4th century) and John Calvin (16th century).

What was Augustine and Calvin's view of salvation?

God will choose which Christians go to heaven and that people cannot consider themselves entitled to salvation but are subject to the grace of God. Simply being Christian does not guarantee salvation.

What belief of Fundamentalist Christians aligns with narrow exclusivists?

Some who take the Bible literally believe that more liberal Christians are not going to be saved.

What was Vatican II (1962-65)?

A major Catholic council that reassessed the Church's role in the modern world and its relationship with other religions.

What did the Catholic Church before Vatican II teach which aligns with narrow exclusivists?

They historically taught with the phrase: "extra ecclesiam nulla salus" - there is no salvation outside the Catholic Church.

How did Vatican II change Catholic exclusivism?

It led to a broader, more inclusive understanding, recognising truth and holiness outside the visible Catholic Church.

What is broad exclusivism?

The belief that all who accept Christ by faith are saved, regardless of denomination or worship style.

What is a necessary condition?

A condition that must be present for something to occur, but which on its own may not be enough.

What is a sufficient condition?

A condition that, if present, is enough on its own to bring something about.

What is Baggini and Fosl's example of a necessary but not sufficient condition?

Being a UK citizen is necessary to be Prime Minister, but not sufficient, as other requirements must also be met.

What is Baggini and Fosl's example of sufficient but not necessary conditions?

Giving a large sum of money and having no criminal record are sufficient to gain US citizenship, but not necessary because other routes exist.

Who is Gavin D'Costa?

Professor of Christian Theology at Bristol University.

• He is a Roman Catholic.

What is Gavin D'Costa's argument about controlling beliefs?

D'Costa argues that views on salvation depend on the "controlling beliefs" of a particular Christian tradition or community.

What are controlling beliefs?

Core doctrinal commitments within a Christian tradition that determine how salvation and other religions are understood.

What are D'Costa's 6 controlling beliefs called?

• Sola Christus

• Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus

• Fides ex auditu

• God and creation

• Eschatology

• Sin and election

What is Sola Christus?

The belief that God's grace and salvation are possible only through Christ.

What does Extra ecclesiam nulla salus mean?

"Outside the Church there is no salvation"; the Church mediates Christ's presence on earth.

What is Fides ex auditu?

The belief that true faith comes from hearing the Gospel, as preached by the Church and witnessed in the Bible.

What are the key beliefs about God and creation?

God alone created the world; God is one but also Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit).

What is Christian eschatology?

The belief in a future state after death involving either the beatific vision (bliss with God) or damnation.

What is meant by sin and election?

Humans are fallen and cannot fully know God on their own; God elects some for salvation and others for damnation.

How does Gavin D'Costa divide exclusivists?

Into restrictive-access exclusivists and universal-access exclusivists.

What do restrictive-access exclusivists believe?

Salvation is only for those who hear and respond to the gospel during their earthly lives (similar to Calvin). (Similar view to that of Augustine and John Calvin)

What does restrictive access exclusivism place emphasis on?

RAE places emphasis on the sinfulness of human nature and therefore the uniqueness of Christ as the only means of salvation. (Sola Christus)

For RAE, salvation is only possible by?

Salvation is only possible by directly hearing the Gospel (fides ex auditu) and accepting baptism into the Church.

What biblical text supports RAE?

"I am the way, and the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me." - John 14:6

What do universal-access exclusivists believe?

Christ's salvation is offered to all, and God wills everyone to be saved through faith in Christ, possibly even after death.

How does UAE interpret who can be saved from the bible?

Unlike RAE, UAE understands "the world" in scripture to mean all people.

Which biblical passage supports UAE? (Quote)

God "wants all people to be saved" through the one mediator, Christ. - 1 Timothy 2:3-6

What is Dominus Iesus?

A Roman Catholic declaration made by the Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith in 2001.

What does Dominus Iesus state about other religions?

It states that while followers of other religions may receive divine grace, they are in a "gravely deficient situation" compared to those within the Roman Catholic Church.

What are some strengths of exclusivism?

• Preserves clear doctrinal boundaries and internal consistency

• Respects the uniqueness and truth-claims of Christianity

• Motivates commitment, evangelism, and moral seriousness

What are some criticisms of exclusivism?

• Not compatible with the idea of an all-loving forgiving God. Suggests God loves some people more than others, because some have more opportunities to become Christian than others.

• Exclusivism causes social division and conflict.

• Exclusivism fails to recognise the richness and wisdom of different world religions.

Why do some believe exclusivism is arrogant?

Because it assumes that Christians know best.

What is inclusivism?

The view that although one's own religion is the normative (setting the standard of normality) means of salvation, those who accept its central principles may also receive salvation.

What is inclusivism from a Christian perspective?

Inclusivists tend to argue that Christianity is the best route to salvation but that there is the possibility of salvation for those outside the Christian tradition.

Why do inclusivists reject strict exclusivism?

Because it conflicts with God's omnibenevolence.

What do inclusivists argue about Jesus?

Inclusivists agree that Jesus' death and Resurrection were unique events of cosmic significance for salvation, but they are uncomfortable with the idea that a God of love would always reject someone who was sincerely trying to follow God through the context of a different religious faith.

What do some inclusivists argue about non-Christians' after death?

That there might be the possibility after death for non-Christians to accept the truth of the Christian message.

What do some inclusivists argue about truth in other religions?

When truth is found in other religions, it is Christian truth even though it has not been recognised as such. Other religions sometimes have 'rays of truth' or 'rays of light' where they agree with the teachings of Christianity.

What do some inclusivists argue about people from non-Christian faiths?

That people from non-Christian faiths call Christ by other names without realising that it is Christ at work. For example, when Sikhs share free food at their place of worship with everyone, especially the poor, they could be doing the work of Christ in feeding the hungry without recognising it.

What is a biblical quote which supports inclusivism?

"Whatever you did for one of the least of these brothers and sisters of mine, you did for me" - Matthew 25:40 (Parable of the Sheep and Goats)

• Those who act with love and compassion serve Christ without knowing it.

Which Catholic theologian, was very influential in developing a Catholic position on theology of religion in regard to inclusivism?

Karl Rahner

Who was Karl Rahner?

A Catholic theologian closely associated with inclusivism.

• Was a leading voice in the Vatican II's discussions.

What book did Rahner write?

'Theological Investigations' (1967)

What did the Karl Rahner argue about Christianity?

Christianity is the "absolute religion" with a unique offering of salvation through the grace of God in Christ.

Why did Rahner call Christianity the "absolute religion"?

Because it is founded on God's ultimate revelation in Christ.

Why did Rahner reject exclusivism?

It would condemn people who never heard of Christ, which contradicts God's love.

What is an anonymous Christian?

A non-Christian who responds to God's grace unknowingly by living a Christ-like life.

What does Rahner believe some non-Christians could be?

People could be 'anonymous Christians', following Christian ideals without realising that they are actually following Christ.

How does Rahner justify the idea of anonymous Christians?

Some people, through no fault of their own, are not exposed to the message of Christianity, for example if they lived before Jesus or in a country the gospel has not reached.

Which biblical figures support Rahner's idea of an anonymous Christian?

Abraham and Moses- faithful to God before Christ.