Introduction to Language Structure, Interaction, and Variation

These flashcards cover the core concepts of linguistics, including language structure, variation, social interaction, and language acquisition, based on the provided comprehensive summary notes.

What is the scientific definition of linguistics according to the text?

Linguistics is the science that studies language.

What is the difference between a linguist and a polyglot?

A linguist is someone who studies linguistics (the science of language), whereas a polyglot is someone who knows many languages; being a polyglot is not a requirement for being a linguist.

Define the design feature 'Double articulation'.

The use of a small number of sounds combined to produce a large number of words, which can then be combined into an infinite number of sentences.

What does 'Displacement' allow language users to do?

It allows speakers to talk about things that are not present or do not exist, as well as the ability to lie.

What is 'Cultural transmission' in the context of language?

The principle that not all aspects of language are innate; some are taught after birth and vary according to the culture in which a child is raised.

How do Prescriptivism and Descriptivism differ?

Prescriptivism passes judgments on what is 'right' or 'wrong' in language, while Descriptivism describes the facts and rules of how language is actually used by its speakers.

Define 'Diachronic' linguistics.

The study of how language changes through time, including etymology and the reconstruction of dead languages.

Define 'Synchronic' linguistics.

The study of how language functions at any given moment in time, without focusing on its origins or historical changes.

What is the difference between 'Competence' and 'Performance'?

Competence is the internalized knowledge a speaker has about their language; Performance is the actual production and articulation of words and sentences.

What is a 'phoneme'?

The mental image or representation of a sound, or the smallest unit of language that helps distinguish meaning.

What are 'allophones'?

The various ways a single phoneme is articulated in different positions within words (e.g., aspirated vs. unreleased [p]).

Define a 'minimal pair'.

Two words with different meanings that differ in only one sound, such as [bɪt] and [pɪt].

What is the difference between a 'morpheme' and a 'lexeme'?

A morpheme is the smallest unit of language with a distinct meaning; a lexeme is an entry in the lexicon which may consist of one or more morphemes.

What is an 'infix'?

An affix that attaches in the middle of a word (e.g., 'un-fucking-believable').

Differentiate between 'Inflectional' and 'Derivational' morphemes.

Derivational morphemes create new words or change the part of speech; Inflectional morphemes mark grammatical categories like plurality, tense, or case and do not change the core meaning.

Define 'Clipping' in word formation.

The process of constructing new words by shortening longer words, such as 'prof' from professor.

What is a 'Calque'?

A special kind of loan word where parts of words are translated literally from another language (e.g., German 'Fernsprecher' for telephone).

What are 'Phrasal verbs'?

Verbs composed of a verb and a particle (preposition or adverb) whose meaning is often idiomatic, such as 'put off' or 'deal with'.

In syntax, what is 'Grammaticality'?

The status of a sentence when speakers of a language agree it is a construction they would produce under appropriate circumstances.

What is the 'head' of a phrase?

The part of speech without which a given phrase could not exist (e.g., the noun is the head of a Noun Phrase).

Define 'Cohesion' and 'Coherence'.

Cohesion refers to the surface structure of a text holding together (e.g., pronouns); Coherence refers to the overall meaning and how the text fits together at a semantic level.

What is an 'adjacency pair'?

A succession of two linked turns by different speakers where the second makes sense only in light of the first (e.g., greeting/greeting, question/answer).

Define 'Signifier' and 'Signified'.

The signifier is the sequence of sounds that make up a word; the signified is the mental concept or meaning associated with that signifier.

What is 'Metonymy'?

A shift in meaning where an entity is referred to by the name of something associated with it (e.g., 'drinking a glass' to mean the contents).

Contrast 'Denotation' and 'Connotation'.

Denotation is the core sense or literal meaning of a sign; Connotation represents the aspects of meaning that go beyond the sense, involving feelings or cultural associations.

Define 'Polysemy'.

The property of a word having more than one related meaning, such as 'coat' meaning a garment or a layer of paint.

What is 'Disambiguation'?

The process by which the various potential meanings of a word are discarded based on the context of the sentence.

What are 'Deictics'?

Words whose meaning is entirely dependent on the context of the sentence, such as 'I', 'here', and 'now'.

Explain the three acts within a 'Speech Act'.

Locutionary act (literal words said), Illocutionary act (the intent or force of the utterance), and Perlocutionary act (the effect on the listener).

What are Grice's four Maxims of Cooperation?

Maxim of Quality (truth), Maxim of Relevance (be relevant), Maxim of Quantity (informative balance), and Maxim of Manner (be clear and orderly).

What is an 'implicature'?

The extra meaning derived from 'flouting' or flagrantly breaking a conversational maxim while still following the Cooperative Principle.

Differentiate between 'Positive face' and 'Negative face'.

Positive face is the desire to be liked or have one's ego built; Negative face is the desire to be left alone and not be imposed upon.

What is the primary difference between 'Accent' and 'Dialect'?

Accent refers specifically to phonological variation (pronunciation); Dialect refers to regional or social varieties that differ in phonology, vocabulary, and syntax.

Define 'Code-switching'.

The alternation of two language varieties or languages within a single conversation.

What is an 'isogloss'?

An imaginary line on a map marking the boundaries between areas where a particular linguistic form is used.

What are the three circles of 'World Englishes'?

Inner circle (e.g., UK, US), Outer circle (e.g., India, Nigeria), and Expanding circle (e.g., China, Russia).

Differentiate between 'Register', 'Jargon', and 'Slang'.

Register is determined by subject matter/situation; Jargon is specialized occupational language; Slang is informal, innovative lexicon used by a restricted population to mark group identity.

What was the 'hyper-correction' observed in Labov's NYC study?

The tendency of lower-middle-class speakers to use excessive prestige forms (like postvocalic [r]) in careful speech, often exceeding the usage of the upper-middle class.

What is 'Diglossia'?

A specialized form of bilingualism where two varieties of a language (High and Low) coexist with distinct functional distributions.

Define 'Pidgin' and 'Creole'.

A pidgin is a simplified contact language with no native speakers; a creole is a nativized pidgin that has become a community's mother tongue.

Compare the 'Dialectologist' and 'Creole' hypotheses for the origins of AAVE.

The Dialectologist hypothesis suggests AAVE was influenced by older British/Irish dialects; the Creole hypothesis suggests it originated from a West African pidgin that gradually decreolized.

Define 'Habitual Be' in AAVE grammar.

The use of the verb 'be' to indicate a recurring or habitual state (e.g., 'The coffee be cold' implies it is usually cold).

What are the 'Difference' and 'Dominance' approaches in language and gender studies?

The Dominance approach sees language differences as a reflection of power imbalances; the Difference approach sees men and women as belonging to distinct cultures with different conversational rules.

In First Language Acquisition, what is the 'Poverty of Stimulus' argument?

The claim that children are exposed to incomplete or messy input and receive little grammatical correction, yet still master a complex language, suggesting innate capacity.

What is the 'Critical Period Hypothesis'?

The proposal that there is a biologically determined window (ending around puberty) during which language must be acquired to reach native-like proficiency.

Define 'Overextension' in child language development.

When a child generalizes the property of one object to others, such as calling all round objects a 'ball'.

Differentiate between 'Acquisition' and 'Learning' in Krashen's model.

Acquisition is a subconscious process focused on meaning; Learning is a formal, conscious process focused on grammatical rules.

What is 'Interlanguage'?

A learner's individual, evolving version of a second language that is neither the first language nor the target language, but a systematic representation of their current knowledge.