CC210: Lessons 1 & 2

textbook definitions & examples

criminal behaviour

An act or omission that is legally defined as a crime.

example: stealing something from a store, hit & run

social construction of crime

The process of defining crime is social and political in nature and consequently the definitions of crime embody human values and moral beliefs about right and wrong.

consensus theory of crime

The theory that crime is defined in a manner that is agreed upon by the members of a society.

conflict theory of crime

The theory that crime is determined by the powerful and wealthy members of society, who define it in ways that promote and maintain their position of dominance.

violence

An intentional act of threatened, attempted, or actual physical harm directed against a non-consenting person.

example: a broad definition of violent acts

physical violence

An intentional act that causes physical insult or injury, regardless of how minor, to another non-consenting person.

example: A narrower subset of violent behaviours; behaviours that involve physical elements

macro theory

A large scale theory that explains phenomena at a societal or broad group level.

example: Yearly Canadian census, large studies conducted.

micro theory

A small scale theory that explains phenomena at an individual level.

example: individual studies on individuals

theory

A set of interconnected statements that explain the relationship between two or more events.

inter-individual differences

variations that exist between two or more individuals

intra-individual differences

variations occurring within the same person.

example: acting differently at home than we do at school

age-crime curve

The distribution of criminal behaviour over the lifespan, which consistently shows that crime rates rise sharply throughout adolescence, peak in early adulthood, and taper off during middle and old age.

example: Being more willing / able to commit a crime at a younger age than an older one.

case study

An in-depth examination or observation of a single individual.

example: Phineas Gage

longitudinal research design

A research design that involves making several observations of the same study of participants over a period of time, sometimes many years.

example: Studying the rate of height in children over time as it relates to diet. 

third variable

An extraneous and uncontrolled factor that may be responsible for changes occurring in a study variable.

random assignment

The assignment of participants to different study conditions on the basis of chance.

experimental group

The study participants who are exposed to the variable or condition under investigation.

control group

The study participants who are not exposed to the variable or condition under investigation and are used for comparison purposes.

causal inference

A logical conclusion made when experimental results show that one variable is responsible for changing another.

quasi-experimental group

A research design that incorporates some of the features of a true experiment.

meta-analysis

A method of data analysis that involves combining the results of many studies on a particular subject to generate a statistical estimate of the overall magnitude of their findings.

evolutionary psychology

The field of study concerned with understanding how natural selection shapes and influences mental processes and behaviour.

behavioural genetics

The field of study concerned with understanding the influence of genetics on the expression of characteristics and behaviours within a population.

chromosome

A microscopic structure found in the nucleus of most living cells that contains DNA. 

DNA

A long, coiled, threadlike strand consisting of small segments known as genes, which constitute the blueprints of life.

gene

A small segment of DNA that constitutes the biological instructions for certain characteristics or parts of the body.

polymorphism

A gene that exists in more than one alternative form allowing for genetic variation, upon which natural selection can operate.

allele

A variant form of a gene (one member of a pair inherited from each parent) that resides at a specific location on a chromosome.

polygenic

A trait characteristic (e.g., height) that is determined by many genes, each contributing a small individual effect.

monozygotic twins

Twins that develop from a single fertilized egg that, for unknown reasons, has split; also known as identical twins because the offspring are genetically identical.

dizygotic twins

Twins that develop from two eggs that are independently fertilized by different sperm and consequently vary genetically from one another; also known as fraternal twins.

concordance rate

The percentage of two individuals, usually twins, who match one another with respect to the presence of a particular characteristic or condition.

neurotransmitters

Electrochemical messengers that transmit information or impulses from neuron to neuron.

diathesis

A genetic vulnerability or predisposition to develop a psychopathological condition.

epigenetics

Processes that raise or lower gene activity level without altering the genetic sequence.

natural selection

The differential survival and reproduction of individual members of a species and the resulting increase or decrease of the inheritable characteristics associated with those individuals within a population.

environment of evolutionary adaptiveness (EEA)

The set of conditions that existed during ancestral times and to which the human body and brain adapted.

inclusive fitness

The reproductive success of both the individual and his or her close genetic relatives.

reciprocal cooperation

An evolutionary adaptive  behaviour that involves providing a non-related individual a benefit on the basis that he or she will return the favour and thereby increase survival and reproductive success.

cheating behaviour

Accepting a benefit from another without reciprocating the favour.

parenting effort

The time, energy, and resources dedicated to supporting one’s mate and raising one’s offspring.

mating effort

The time, energy, and resources dedicated to having sex with others.

frequency-dependent strategy

In evolutionary theory, a behavioural pattern that produces relatively greater success when its use within a population is rare and relatively lower success when its use within a population is common.

intrasexual competition

Rivalry among the members of one sex, usually for mates or resources.