The Real World: An Introduction to Sociology- Chapter 1

Sociology

the systematic or scientific study of human society and social behavior, from large-scale institutions and mass culture to small groups and individual interactions

Society

a group of people who shape their lives in aggregated and patterned ways that distinguish their group from other groups

Social Sciences

the disciplines that use the scientific method to examine the social world, in contrast to the natural sciences, which examine the physical world

Sociological Perspective

a way of looking at the world through sociological lens

Beginner's Mind

approaching the world without preconceptions in order to see things in a new way

Culture Shock

a sense of disorientation that occurs when you enter a radically new social or cultural environment

Sociological Imagination

a quality of the mind that allows us to understand the relationship between our individual circumstances and larger social forces

Microsociology

the level of analysis that studies face-to-face and small group interactions in order to understand how they affect the larger patterns and institutions of society

Macrosociology

the level of analysis that studies large-scale social structures in order to determine how they affect the lives groups and individuals

Theories

in sociology, abstract propositions that explain the social world and make predictions about the future

Paradigms

a set of assumptions, theories, and perspectives that make up a way of understanding social reality

Positivism

the theory, developed by Auguste Comte, that sense perceptions are the only valid source of knowledge

Scientific Method

a procedure for acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting concrete data through observation and experiment

Social Darwinism

the application of the theory of evolution and the notion of "survival of the fittest" to the study of society

Structural Functionalism

a paradigm based on the assumption that society is a unified whole that functions because of the contributions of its separate structures

Mechanical Solidarity

term developed by Emile Durkheim to describe the type of social bonds present in premodern, agrarian societies, in which shared traditions and beliefs created a sense of social cohesion

Organic Solidarity

term developed by Emile Durkheim to describe the type of social bonds present in modern societies, based on difference, interdependence, and individual rights

Anomie

"normlessness"; term used to describe the alienation and loss of purpose that result from weaker social bonds and an increased pace of change

Solidarity

the degree of integration or unity within a particular society; the extent to which individuals feel connected to other members of their group

Sacred

the holy, divine, or supernatural

Profane

the ordinary, mundane, or everyday

Collective Effervescense

an intense energy in shared events where people feel swept up in something larger than themselves

Collective Conscience

the shared morals and beliefs that are common to a group and which foster social solidarity

Empirical

based on scientific experimentation or observation

Structure

a social institution that is relatively stable over time and that meets the needs of society by performing functions necessary to maintain social order and stability

Dysfunction

a disturbance to or undesirable consequence of some aspect of the social system

Manifest Functions

the obvious, intended functions of a social structure for the social system

Latent Functions

the less obvious, perhaps unintended functions of a social structure

Conflict Theory

a paradigm that sees social conflict as the basis of society and social change, and emphasizes a materialist view of society, a critical view of the status quo, and a dynamic model of historical change

Social Inequality

the unequal distribution of wealth, power, or prestige among members of a society

Communism

a political system based on the collective ownership of the means of production; opposed to capitalism

Conflict

generated by the competition among different class groups for scarce resources and the source of all social change, according to Karl Marx

Capitalism

an economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and characterized by competition, the profit motive, and wage labor

Means of Production

anything that can create wealth: money, property, factories, and other types of businesses, and the infrastructure necessary to run them

Proletariat

workers; those who have no means of production of their own and so are reduced to selling their labor power in order to live

Bourgeoisie

owners; the class of modern capitalists who own the means of production and employ wage laborers

Alienation

the sense of dissatisfaction the modern worker feels as a result of producing goods that are owned and controlled by someone else, according to Karl Marx

Socialism

a political system based on a state ownership or control of principal elements of the economy in order to reduce levels of social inequality

Ideology

a system of beliefs, attitudes, and values that directs a society and reproduces the status quo of the bourgeoisie

False Consciousness

a denial of the truth on the part of the oppressed when they fail to recognize the interests of the ruling class in their ideology

Class Consciousness

the recognition of social inequality on the part of the oppressed, leading to revolutionary action

Dialectical Model

Karl Marx's model of historical change, whereby two extreme positions come into conflict and create some new third thing between them

Thesis

the existing social arrangements in a dialectical model

Antithesis

the opposition to the existing arrangements in a dialectical model

Synthesis

the new social system created out of the conflict between thesis and antithesis in a dialectical model

Critical Theory

a contemporary form of conflict theory that criticizes many different systems and ideologies of domination and oppression

Feminist Theory

a theoretical approach that looks at gender inequities in society and the way that gender structures the social world

Queer Theory

a paradigm that proposes that categories of sexual identity are social constructs and that no sexual category is fundamentally either deviant or normal

Praxis

practical action that is taken on the basis of intellectual or theoretical understanding

Rationalization

the application of economic logic to human activity; the use of formal rules and regulations in order to maximize efficiency without consideration of subjective or individual concerns

Bureaucracies

secondary groups designed to perform tasks efficiently, characterized by specialization, technical competence, hierarchy, written rules, impersonality, and formal written communication

Iron Cage

Max Weber's pessimistic description of modern life, in which we are caught in bureaucratic structures that control our lives through rigid rules and rationalization

Disenchantment

the rationalization of modern society

Verstehen

"empathic understanding"; Weber's term to describe good social research, which tries to understand the meanings that individual social actors attach to various actions and events

Symbolic Interactionism

a paradigm that sees interaction and meaning as central to society and assumes that meanings are not inherent but are created through interaction

The Chicago School

a type of sociology practiced by researchers at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and 30s that centered on urban sociology and field research methods

Pragmatism

a theoretical perspectives that assumes organism (including humans) make practical adaptions to their environments; humans do this through cognition, interpretation, and interaction

Eurocentric

the tendency to favor European or Western histories, cultures, and values over other non-Western societies

Dramaturgy

a theoretical paradigm that uses the metaphor of the theater to understand how individuals present themselves to others

Ethnomethodology

the study of "folk methods" and background knowledge that sustains a shared sense of reality in everyday interactions

Conversation Analysis

a sociological approach that looks at how we create meaning in naturally occurring conversation, often by taping conversations and examining them

Postmodernism

a paradigm that suggests that social reality is diverse, pluralistic, and constantly in flux

Modernism

a paradigm that places trust in the power of science and technology to create progress, solve problems, and improve life

Deconstruction

a type of critical postmodern analysis that involves taking apart or disassembling old ways of thinking

MIdrange Theory

an approach that integrates empiricism and grand theory