Key Terms

"Did Engagement Fail?"

The debate over whether engagement failed was popularized by a 2015 Foreign Affairs article by Kurt Campbell and Ely Ratner, which argued that decades of U.S. engagement strengthened China economically but did not produce political liberalization, making China a more capable authoritarian rival.

"Who lost China?"

The "Who lost China?" debate in the late 1940s and 1950s, driven by Senator Joseph McCarthy and other anti-communists, blamed U.S. policymakers for the Communist victory in China and contributed to a hardened containment policy.

NCUSCR

The National Committee on U.S.-China Relations (NCUSCR), founded in 1966, helped facilitate academic, cultural, and diplomatic exchanges and became an important part of the engagement strategy between the United States and China.

The Korean War

The Korean War (1950-1953), which began on June 25, 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea, brought the United States and the People's Republic of China into direct military conflict and marked the true beginning of the Cold War in Asia.

The Vietnam War

The Vietnam War (1955-1975) was a costly U.S. attempt to contain communism in Southeast Asia, and its failure helped push American policymakers to reconsider isolation and eventually pursue rapprochement with China.

Engagement Coalition

The engagement coalition consisted of U.S. policymakers, business leaders, and academics from the 1970s through the 2000s who supported integrating China into the global system in the belief that it would become more open and liberal over time.

Counter-China Coalition

The counter-China coalition emerged more strongly in the 2010s and argued that engagement had failed, emphasizing that China had become more powerful without democratizing and should instead be treated as a strategic competitor.

Shanghai Communiqué

The Shanghai Communiqué of 1972, signed during President Richard Nixon's visit to China and negotiated with Premier Zhou Enlai, established the foundation for rapprochement by allowing both sides to acknowledge differences, particularly on Taiwan, without resolving them.

U.S. Engagement Strategy

The U.S. engagement strategy toward China rested on four pillars: modernizing China economically, liberalizing it politically, socializing it into international norms, and maintaining engagement as an ongoing process through exchanges and cooperation.

NGOs

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) operating in China after 1978 sought to promote civil society and reform, but their influence has remained limited due to strict control by the Chinese Communist Party.

The China Lobby

The China Lobby in the United States during the 1940s and 1950s supported the Republic of China under Chiang Kai-shek and strongly opposed recognition of the Communist government in Beijing.

The Taiwan Relations Act

The Taiwan Relations Act of 1979, was a law passed by Congress that set policy towards Taiwan. It is all people to people continued relations, allowing continued arms sales, unofficial relations, but in the end it states that if Taiwan is threatened, then it the President must promptly inform Congress and Congress will take appropriate action (aka. going to war).

Dean Acheson's Speech

In his January 12, 1950 speech, Secretary of State Dean Acheson outlined a U.S. defensive perimeter in Asia that excluded Taiwan and South Korea, which contributed to miscalculation and helped set the stage for the Korean War.

This speech was a response to the Cold War ramping up.

The Bamboo Curtain

The Bamboo Curtain was a Cold War term used to describe the isolation of Communist China from the Western world, especially before rapprochement began in the 1970s.

The Great Leap Forward

The Great Leap Forward (1958-1962), led by Mao Zedong, was an effort to rapidly industrialize China through collectivization, but it resulted in a massive famine that caused tens of millions of deaths.

Johnson's speech at John Hopkins (1965)

In his April 7, 1965 speech at Johns Hopkins University, President Lyndon B. Johnson signaled a willingness to improve relations with China, reflecting early doubts about the sustainability of strict containment.

Fulbright Hearings

Senator J. William Fulbright's hearings in the 1960s questioned U.S. foreign policy, particularly the Vietnam War, and contributed to a broader rethinking of containment and China policy.

SALT II agreement (Strategic Arms Limitations Talks)

The SALT II agreement in 1979 between the United States and the Soviet Union was part of the broader Cold War context in which triangular diplomacy with China was used to balance Soviet power.

Transformation of the China Lobby

The transformation of the China Lobby (origionally wanted ties with the ROC) in the 1960s and 1970s reduced its political influence, making it easier for U.S. leaders to pursue engagement with the People's Republic of China. The China Lobby turned into the Taiwan Lobby.

Kissinger's 25 Point Proposal

Henry Kissinger's diplomatic outreach, including proposals for exchanges with Chinese officials such as Xiong Xianghui, laid the groundwork for improved U.S.-China relations in the early 1970s.

U.S.-China Joint Communiqué on Arms Sales to Taiwan (Third Communiqué)

In the third U.S.-China Joint Communiqué in August 1982, Reagan addressed arms sales to Taiwan, with the United States expressing an intention to gradually reduce them while maintaining ambiguity.

Joint Communiqué on Diplomatic Recognition (1978)

The United States (under Carter) formally recognizes the People's Republic of China (PRC) as the sole legal government of China and agrees to terminate official diplomatic relations with Taiwan (ROC).

The U.S. also states that it acknowledges the Chinese position that there is but one China and Taiwan is part of China, without explicitly endorsing that claim.

Six Assurances

The Six Assurances were passed as clarification to the U.S.-China Joint Communiqué on Arms Sales to reassure Taiwan. It is stated:

-Has not agreed to set a date ending arms sales to Taiwan

-Has not agreed to prior consultations with the PRC on arms sales to Taiwan

-Will not play any mediating role between Taipei and Beijing

-Has not agreed to revise the Taiwan Relations Act

-Has not altered its position regarding sovereignty over Taiwan

-Will not exert pressure on Taiwan to negotiate with the PRC

The First Taiwan Strait Crisis

The First Taiwan Strait Crisis (1954-55) involved Chinese shelling of offshore islands controlled by Taiwan and tested U.S. commitment to defend the Republic of China.

The Jinmen Crisis

The Second Taiwan Strait Crisis in 1958 again involved Chinese shelling of Quemoy and Matsu and served as a demonstration of strength aimed at both the United States and the Soviet Union

Bandung Conference

The Bandung Conference in April 1955 brought together mainly independent Asian and African nations and allowed China to present itself as a leader of the developing world.

The Bandung Line

China's "moderate line" in foreign policy is one where they are more diplomatic and less confrontational. This is inspired by the Bandung Conference and refers to a more moderate type of international affairs.

The Cultural Revolution

The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), initiated by Mao Zedong, was a radical ideological campaign that caused widespread social and political upheaval in China.

Formerly known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution

Make China Strong

Mao wanted to make China strong ideologically, not economically. He did not boost the economy, but gave them a prevalent culture. He started the Cultural Revolution in the hopes of making Chinese culture strong.

1951 Sino-Tibetan Agreement

The 1951 Sino-Tibetan Agreement formalized Chinese control over Tibet and expanded the authority of the People's Republic of China over the region.

Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance

In February 1950, Mao Zedong and Joseph Stalin signed a treaty in which the Soviet Union provided China with loans, industrial assistance (factories and engineers), military support, and the return/control of key assets like railways and ports, while China aligned politically with the Soviet bloc, supported communist movements in Asia, and served as a strategic ally against the United States and its partners.

February 28 Massacre

The February 28 Massacre in 1947 was a violent crackdown by the Kuomintang in Taiwan that shaped its authoritarian legacy.

The Wild Lily Movement (1990)

The Wild Lily Movement in 1990 was a student-led protest movement in Taiwan that helped push the country toward democratization.

The Sunflower Movement

The Sunflower Movement in 2014 involved protests in Taiwan against a trade agreement with China and reflected growing concern about economic dependence on the mainland.

New Southbound Policy

President Tsai Ing-wen's New Southbound Policy, launched in 2016, aimed to reduce Taiwan's economic reliance on China by strengthening ties with other countries in Asia.

The Taiwan Policy Act of 2022

The Taiwan Policy Act, proposed in 2022, represents a U.S. effort to deepen support for Taiwan amid rising tensions with China.

2001 Wang Wei Incident

The 2001 Wang Wei incident occurred when a Chinese fighter pilot died after colliding with a U.S. surveillance plane, creating a diplomatic crisis early in George W. Bush's presidency.

Nanci Pelosi's 2022 Visit to Taiwan

The 2022 visit to Taiwan by U.S. Speaker Nancy Pelosi triggered strong reactions from China and heightened tensions in U.S.-China relations.

Princelings/Red Princes

"Princelings" refers to the children of senior Chinese Communist Party officials who hold significant political and economic power in China.

OPM Hack of 2015

The 2015 Office of Personnel Management (OPM) hack, attributed to China, exposed sensitive U.S. government data and highlighted growing cyber competition.

Leninism

Leninism is the ideological foundation of the Chinese Communist Party, emphasizing centralized authority, party control, and limited political pluralism

3 Stages

1950-1971 is Containment. US-China hostility, incompatible visions, near war.

1972-2016 is Engagement. US-China cooperation, compatible visions (with ups and downs).

2016-present. No good one-word summary. Back to hostility, incompatible visions, competition, rivalry, etc. Each side has

military contingency plans for the other

Korea at the end of WWII

At the end of the war, it is agreed that Korea will be split into two upon the 38th parallel.

The SU occupies North Korea, north of the 38th Parallel. The US is south of the 38th Parallel. This resulted in two separate regimes (US/SU)

Events of The Korean War

This whole thing starts with the North Korean Leader flying to Moscow (While Mao is there) with the proposition that since South Korea was not part of the US defense perimeter, they should invade. Stalin says that if Mao agrees, then the SU will. Mao says yes.

June 25, 1950, North Korea invades South Korea and well enough that Truman and Acheson change their minds and say that if the US does not step in, then it is appeasement. Truman sends US naval ships to neutralize the Taiwan Strait to make sure the PRC does not take it over.

The US goes to the UN and gets a peacekeeping mission going in South Korea. The SU cannot veto this because they boycotted the UN not giving the PRC a seat.

This US/UN/SK counter-attack on NK is a success. NK is pushed back north of the 38th parallel. BUT in the process, they ignore warnings and cross the 38th parallel in order to liberate NK. China, concerned, sends a lot of soldier to aid NK. That October, there are a lot of troops fighting with SK troops. November, the US presses on. The Chinese counterattack and tries to "liberate" SK but is stopped by SKs foreign allies in April of 1951.

In June 1951, the battlelines stabilize near the 38th parallel.

Negotiations continued until July of 1953 and the US begins a containment policy in Asia.

US Containment Strategy

After the Korean War, the US decided to contain China. Some argue for a Rollback Strategy aimed at pushing back and reversing communist advances instead of simple containment, but in the end, Containment is the strategy.

The goals are to

-undermine China's national strength

-Undercut China's international power and don't let them be legitimate

-bring about a change in resume (they believe communism is temporary)

They do this through setting up alliances against China with other Asian Countries. They create SEATO but it does not work because Japan cannot join. They also try to prevent recognition of the PRC and commit themselves to the defense of Taiwan.

CIA Tibetan Program

After China asserted control over Tibet in 1950-51, the United States covertly supported Tibetan resistance during the 1950s and 1960s, with the CIA providing weapons, training, and funding to anti-PRC fighters, reflecting Cold War containment strategy and efforts to weaken Chinese control in the region.

1955 US-ROC Mutual Defense Treaty

United States and the Republic of China (Taiwan) signed a treaty in which the U.S. committed to help defend Taiwan and the Pescadores against attack, while the ROC aligned closely with the U.S. in the Cold War, strengthening containment of the PRC and formalizing U.S. security support for Taiwan.

SEATO

In 1954, the US created the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization in order to stop the spread of communism in Asia. It was a “Hub and Spokes” system where the US was the hub and Taiwan, Phillipines, Thailand, etc were the spokes.

The Chinese Nuclear Program

In January of 1955, the Chinese decide to start their nuclear development program. The SU had originally agreed to help China develop these, but the Sino-Split happened and in 1959 it was stopped.

In 1964, China tests its first bomb.In 1963-1965, the US discusses a preemptive attack on Chinese nuclear facilities. But in the end, they go to Russia to feel it out and end up not bombing them. Instead, the US starts developing an anti-missile defense system.

Sino Soviet Border Crises (1969)

Border clashes between the SU and China following the Sino-Soviet Split. The two near war.

Geneva Conference on Laos

The Crisis in Laos in 1959-1961 leads to a new Geneva Conference in the hopes of not making Laos a Cold War Battleground (US+South Vietnam vs. North Vietnam which was monetarily backed by the SU and China) Laos becomes neutral and stays a battleground until communists take control in 1975.

Nixon-Kissinger Grand Design

The two leaders planned to reshape the global balance of power during the Cold War through “triangular diplomacy” which was to play China and the SU against each other.

In short, creating a tacit alliance against the SU.

There are some successes, but the Grand Design breaks down by mid to late 70s, when there is Sino Soviet Rapprochement.

China’s National Identity Changes

By the end of the 70s, China is a self-identifying modernizing country, a developing one, and definitely not a revolutionary one. This happens because China takes the ROC Seat at the UN in 1971 and they have to hold up international norms.

Inside of China, there is ideological and political change. Deng Xiaoping acknowledges China’s backwardness and the need for modernization. The Cultural Revolution was seen as a fail and nationalism is becoming more important than socialism, but Leninism is still seen as essential.

Reagan’s Letter to Chiang Chingkuo (1982)

A few weeks before this Third Communiqué, on July 26, 1982, President Reagan sent a private letter to Chiang Ching-Kuo, the leader of Taiwan, to reassure him of support. He says that the US will have intelligence and surveillance in China and that if China changes their peaceful stance to a violent one, the U.S. commitments become invalidated.

Big Picture in the 70s

In the 1970s, the United States and China moved from hostility to normalization, beginning with the Nixon and Kissinger visits and in 1973 Liason Offices being established in both the US and China, and culminating in formal diplomatic recognition in 1978. The 1955 US-ROC Mutual Defense Treaty is severed.

But, the relationship stagnates from 1973-1977.

In the 70s, the Middle East is important; the SU invades Afghanistan and the Iranian Revolution takes place.

Big Picture in the 80s

The 1980s (83-89) are looked at as some of the best years for US-China relations. Reagan gives the Arms Sale Communiqué, China pursues friendly policies with Taiwan, and there is the 1989 Democracy Movement in China. But the 80s were constrained by arm sales to Taiwan, Reagan’s call to upgrade relations with Taiwan, and the the BIG down which is the June 4th Massacre in 1989 (Tiananmen Square Massacre) which was the CCP’s repression of the 1989 Democracy Movement.

Sino-Vietnamese War

China invades Vietnam in 1979 after Vietnam (backed by the SU) invaded Cambodia in 1978. The US did not openly support China, but quietly sided with it to weaken Soviet influence.

US-Chinese Cooperation

When the Su invaded Afghanistan, China and the US cooperated to aid the Afghan resistance. The CIA directly paid China to give them arms.

The US and China also cooperated in joint Chinese-US monitoring stations in Xinjiang that followed SU nuclear and missile tests.

The US also sells military equipment to China.

China-Pakistan Cooperation

China very substantially aids the Pakistan nuclear weapons program and enables them to develop their own nuclear weapons. They also sell medium-range ballistic missiles to Saudi Arabia.

There is gradual Sino-Soviet Rapprochement as this happens.

China-Taiwan Shift

China ends confrontation and promotes trade and investment with Taiwan, and Taiwan lets people go to the mainland in 1987. Taiwan proposes “One Country, Two Systems and Taiwan liberalizes politically: the KMT allows the DPP to form, and after Chiang Ching-kuo dies, Lee Teng-hui becomes president, advancing democratization.

Human Right Violations in China

There are a lot of human rights violations in the 80s, but they go ignored because China is seen as making progress. Some concerns were over the 1 Child Policy and Tibet.

The Highpoint of Engagement (1989-2008)

After Tiananmen, there were signs of trouble for the US and China. The 90s started off with China in a weak position and with a lot of pressure, but by the end of the 90s, China is back as a major international player. In the 2000s, the War on Terror enables further engagement.

Tiananmen Square and Reactions

In China, there is the Protest and the Bloodshed inspired by Fang Lizhi happening from April 15, 1989 and culminating in the Tiananmen Square Massacre on June 4th, 1989. When Soviet Leader Gorbachev visits China to visit Deng Xiaoping in the Gorbachev Summit, the Tiananmen Square Massacre takes place.

The Chinese are furious at the Americans after June 4th. Deng says that the US is the responsible for the bloodshed. Conservatives in China create more reforms, punish protestors, and purge “liberals”. The budget for defense spending goes up in order to guard against “peaceful evolution”.

In the US, the reaction to Tiananmen happens from 1989-1992 and then engagement is continued.

The “China Threat Theory”

The “China Threat Theory” is popularized in the 90s after China seized Mischief Reef in the Philippines. People believe that China is growing aggressive.

F-16 Fighters to Taiwan

In 1992, Bush authorizes the sale of 150 F-16 Fighter Jets to Taiwan, shattering the US-China Joint Communiqué on Arm Sales to Taiwan. This angers China and increases tensions in the area.

HR Linkage

In 1992, Clinton proposes a “HR Linkage” policy where China is only given MFN trade status is China behaves. Congress and business groups do not support this. In 1994, human rights and trade status were delinked.

Yin He Incident

In 1993, the Chinese ship, the Yin He, is in international waters and gets stopped and checked by the US under the accusation that they are carrying chemical weapon materials. No weapons were found, embarrassing the U.S. and increasing Chinese distrust.

China Intellectual Property Violations

Under Clinton, there is pressure on China regarding Intellectual Property. The US threatens to raise tariffs if China does not improve.

1993 North Korean Nuclear Incident

In the Summer of 1993, there is the first North Korean Nuclear Incident.

Jiang-Clinton APEC Meeting (1994)

A meeting is held in Seattle for the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and Jiang Zemin and Clinton meet to ease trade tensions regarding the human rights linkage policy that was disbanded earlier that year.

Democratization of Taiwan

When Chiang Ching-kuo dies in 1988, Taiwanese born Li Tenghui becomes President. In 1991, there is a formal democratization through Taiwan-wide elections for legislature in 1992 and then the Presidential election in 1996. Li pushes to expand Taiwan’s international status, invest in China, and he gains a visa to attend a reunion at Cornell in 1995. This visa violates the 1 China Principle.

The 1995-96 Taiwan Crisis

After Li Tenghui’s visit to Cornell, China reacts with military exercises and missile tests near Taiwan (especially around the ports of Kaohsiung) to intimidate voters ahead of Taiwan’s 1996 election. The U.S. responds by sending a military plane through the Taiwan Strait for the first time since the 60s.

Despite this, Li Tenghui wins the election and becomes the elected President of Taiwan.

The “Three No’s Policy”

To avoid war after the 1995-96 Taiwan Crisis, Clinton creates the “Three No’s Policy” which states that:

1. No support for Taiwan independence

2. No “Two Chinas”

3. No support for Taiwan joining international organizations as a state.

The US ultimately decides on “Stategic Ambiguity” as their Taiwan policy and does not commit to anything in hopes of deterring both countries.

Asian Financial Crisis of 1997

China stabilized its currency and helped regional recovery, improving its global reputation and US relations.

The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)

The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban (CTBT) was a multilateral treaty to ban nuclear weapons testing was passed in 1996. Both the US and China signed the CTBT.

The Cox Commission Report

The Cox Commission Report was a 1999 Congressional Report detailing how China is using systematically imported technology to improve its military modifications—especially satellites—raising concerns about security risks and technology transfers.

The 1999 Bombing of the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade

In 1999, the US accidentally bombs the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade. This is bad because tensions in China are already high: there are Falun Gong Protests in China, the upcoming tenth anniversary of Tiananmen, and Clinton’s percieved snub of Chinese premier Zhu Rongji.

Falun Gong Protests

At the same time as the 1999 Bombing, the Falun Gong Protests took place. The Falun Gong was a spiritual movement banned by the Chinese government who organized a large, unexpected protest in Beijing by surrounding the central leadership compound.

The leader of the Falun Gong had fled to Long Island, NY which only made the Chinese more suspicious.

Congress’ 2000s Olympics Bid

As Beijing bids to be the location for the 2000 Olympics, Congress opposes it due to ongoing human rights concerns after Tiananmen (1989). In 1993, Congress uses the bid as a symbolic way to pressure China—though Beijing ultimately loses to Sydney.

The 2007-2009 Global Financial Crisis

The 2007-2009 Global Financial Crisis weakens the US, but China profits and becomes more emboldened and assertive. China passes a huge stimulus, but Congress is Republican and Obama can only pass a limited stimulus.

In 2008, Obama is elected President of the US and Ma Yingjeou (KMT) is elected President of Taiwan.

2001 EP-3 Incident

The 2001 EP-3 Incident happened when an EP-3 surveillance plane collides with a Chinese fighter jet over China’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The Chinese pilot Wang Wei dies and the US plane makes an emergency landing at a military base on Hainan Island. There is a US-China Crisis until the crew is released after being detained for 11 days.

“Letter of Two Sorries”

The “Letter of Two Sorries” was sent to China by the US saying that they are very sorry for Wang Wei’s family, but also hostile and practically says that China did not follow international emergency protocol. The letter finishes by saying that they acknowledge China’s intention to bring up the topic of the US reconnaissance missions in the area.

China Joins the WTO

China Joins the WTO in 2001 and by 2008, China is number one trading state.

Chen Shuibian

Ma Yinjeou

2nd North Korean Nuclear Crisis

In 2002, the 2nd North Korean Nuclear Crisis begins. Beijing hosts the Six Party Talks, which is a multilateral discussion between China, US, Japan, South Korea, Russia, and North Korea in hopes of dismantling the North Korean Nuclear Program.