Mushrooms Exam 2

Gastrointestinal irritants

the most frequent form of mushroom poisoning is caused by…

Nausea, vomiting, cramps, diarrhea

Muscarine

symptoms occur within 15-30 min of ingestion - focused on involuntary nervous system

excessive salivation, sweating, tears, lactation, plus severe vomiting and diarrhea

severe results in death

dogs are particularly susceptible

Most frequent form of mushroom poisoning is caused by:

Gastrointestinal irritants

Symptoms that are caused by consuming mushrooms that are gastrointestinal irritants:

Diarrhea, vomiting, nausea

Onset time of symptoms from consuming mushrooms that are gastrointestinal irritants

½ to 3 hours

Mushrooms that contain Amatoxins?

Galerina autumnalis

Amanita phalloides

Amanita bisporigera

Toxins that have been linked to neurodegenerative diseases?

Hydrazine

TRUE OR FALSE - IN THE 1950S the CIA used LSF in a super secret mind control program called Operation MK-Ultra

True

What mycotoxin does Aspergillus flavus

Aflatoxin

What mycotoxin does Fusarium oxysporum produce?

Fumonisins

What mycotoxin does Fuasarium graminearum produce?

Zearalenone

What mycotoxin does Aspergillus carbonarius produce?

Ochratoxin A

Which government agency has a monitoring program to help ensure that the foods available for you to buy are not contaminated with mycotoxins?

FDA

The majority of mycotoxin producing fungi are in which phylum?

Ascomycota

Chestnut blight is caused by

Ascomycete

TRUE OR FALSE - American Chestnut trees are infected by ascospores of Cyrphonectria parasitica, but not by conidia.

False

The Oxo gene transferred into the genome of the Darling chestnut trees produces which:

Oxalate Oxidase

TRUE OR FALSE - Tar spot has devastated the Sugar Maple trees in the Northeast, which has led to falling production and increasing prices of maple syrup

FALSE - it primarily affects Norway maple, but has very little effect on tree health

Which tree diseases depend on an insect to create a wound or act as a vector for a fungal infection?

Beech Bark Disease and Dutch Elm Disease

The disease caused by the fungus Ophiostoma ulmi is called Dutch Elm disease why?

the cause was discovered by 5 dutch women scientists

Why did TACF withdraw its support from the Darling Project?

• Lab errors at SUNH ESF

• Disagreement concerning commercialization

• D58 Performance was inconsistent

• Potential Regulatory issues

Components of Lichens?

Green alga

Ascomycete fungus

Cyanobacterium

Yeast

Basidiomycete fungus

The dual hypothesis of lichens was proposed by whom?

Simon Schwendener

Eukaryote Domain evolved when a bacterium engulfed another bacterium that continued to live inside it in a process called

endosymbiosis

According to the lecture, an the geological time scale lichens first appeared 250 million years ago during the ______ period

Triassic

Which lichen growth form is this?

Fruticose

Which lichen growth form is this?

Foliose

Which lichen growth form is this?

Crustose

Which lichen growth form is this?

Gelatinous

Which lichen growth form is this?

Squamulose

Which lichen growth form is this?

Leprose

The oldest living organism is a Geographic Map Lichen (rhixocarpon geographicum) that is ______ years old

8,600

The Wolf Lichen (Letharis Vulpina) produces _____ acid, a toxin that was used to kill wolves

Vulpinic

In 2016, Spibrille et al. published an article in Science magazine where they revealed that in addition to a fungus, an alga and/or cyanobacterium, a third component of lichens is

yeast

Mycorrhizae are a symbiotic relationship between a fungus, referred to as the ______ and a plant referred to as the ______

Mycobiont, Phytobiont

The two general types of mycorrhizae are ______ mycorrhizae, in which hyphae penetrate the cell walls of the root cortex

endomycorrhizal

_______ mycorrhizae where the hyphae grow between the cortical cells, but don’t penetrate the cells

Ectomycorrhizae

What is this a diagram of?

Arbuscular mycorrhizae

What phylum is the fungal partner of Arbuscular mycorrhizae

Glomeromycota

In Ectomycorrhizae, the sheath of hyphae surrounding the outside of the root top is called the _____ and the network of hyphae growing between the cortical cells is called the ______

Mantel, Hartig Net

Most ectomycorrhizal fungi belong to the ______

Basidiomycota phylum

TRUE OR FALSE - In Mycorrhizial symbiosis, he fungus benefits by receiving sugars and lipids from the plant, while the plant benefits by recieving water, nitrogen and phosphorus from the fungal partner

True

TRUE or FALSE - A single fungal species can form different types of mycorrhizal connections depending on the plant species it is connecting to

True

In monotropoid mycorrhizae, that form Monotropa unifora, the fungal partner provides carbohydrates to the plant that it obtains from ___

EcM partners

Toxin and symptoms of Alcohol Inky

Toxin = coprine

Symptoms = similar to alcohol poisoning, nausea, palpitations

Toxin and symptoms of false morels

Toxin = Gyromitrin —> Monomethylhydrozene

Symptoms = headache, abdominal pain, severe diarrhea

Toxins and symptoms of Jack O’ Lantern

Toxins = Illudin

Symptoms = Nausea, diarrhea, vomiting

Toxins and symptoms of Shiitake Mushrooms

Toxin: Lentinan

Symptoms: flagellate rash

What is the deadliest mycotoxin?

Aflatoxins

What foods does Alfatoxins occur in ?

Rye, barley, wheat, corn, alcohol, sugar cane, sugar beets

How does mycotoxic get into our food supply?

Fungus infects plant and produces mycotoxin —> fungus may die off, by mycotoxin remains —> food contaminated even though fungus is no longer present

Ergot poisoning

severe condition caused by ingesting grain or flour contaminated with the fungus Claviceps purpurea

Dermatotoxins symptoms

Damaging mucous membranes and skin

Hepatoxins symptoms

Leading to liver damage

caridotoxins symptoms

Cardiovascular diseases

Nephrotoxins symptoms

damaging the kidneys

neurotoxins symptoms

affecting the central nervous system

Pulmotoxins symtpoms

pulmonary edema

What mushrooms contain Amatoxins?

Galerina autumnalis

Amanita bisporigera

Amanita phalloides

What toxin has been linked to neurodegenerative diseases

hydrazine

Aspergillus flavus produces

Aflatoxin

Fusarium oxysporum produces

Fumonisins

Fusarium Graminearum produces

Zearalenone

Aspergillus carbonarius produces

Ochratoxin A

The majority of mycotoxin producing fungi are in which phylum

Ascomycota

What is a lichen?

an organism comprised of a fungus and an alga/cyanobacterium. May also include yeast, bacteria, and viruses

most are ascomycetes

“verbs as well as nouns”

Why did TACf withdraw its support from the darling project?

Lab errors at SUNH ESF

disagreement concerning commercialization

D58 Performance was inconsistent

Potential regulatory issues

Mycobiont

fungal component of lichen

photbiont

algal component of lichen

How do fungus and algal components work together in lichen?

Fungus absorbs the water, enzymes to extract nutrients, provides mineral nutrition and protection —> Algae uses sunlight to fix CO2 to produce sugars

How are lichens taxonomically classified?

by the fungal component

Ernst Haeckel

1866 “Ecology” - the relationship between organisms and their environment

Alexander von Humbolt

nature is an interconnected whole - a system of active forces

Simon Schwendener

Swiss botanist - 1869 proposed the dual hypothesis of lichens

suggests some organisms have dual evolutionary lines

Albert Frank

proposed the term symbiosis to describe the relationships in lichens

Heinrich Anton de Bary

Generalized the term symbiosis to describe the full spectrum of relationships

Joshua Lederberg

discovered that bacteria could acquire traits from other bacteria

Lynn Margulis

pushed for endosymbiso

What is the importance of horizontal gene transfer

major jump in eukaryotic evolution - transfer entire genomes

What is the importance of endosymbiosis

Eukaryotic domain evolved when a bacterium engulfed another bacterium that continued to live inside it

eukaryotes are inseparable composite of multiple evolutionary lines

Wolf Lichens

fruticose lichen

grows on conifers

red listed in norway

produced vulpinic acid

eaten by reindeer and moose

toxic to wolves

used as yellow dye

Tree Lungwort

Foliose tripartite ascolichen

Reproduces by soredia, isidia and after 25 years apothecia

Contribute to forest soil N reserve

Bioindicator - acid rain lowers pH inhibits nitrogen reductase

Herbal medicine

Lichen asexual reproduction

fragmentation-pieces of lichen break off. Soredia particles of algal cells enveloped by fungal hyphae

Lichen sexual reproduction

fungus produces spores —> sprores land, germinate and hyphae grows to find right species of alga —> fungus grows through the agla develops

Endomycorrhizal

one of the most common types of Mycorrhizae - fungi grow inside root cells

Fungal phylum - glomeromyctota

Contains:

• Arbuscular mycorrhiza

• Ericoid mycorrhiza

• Orchid mycorrhiza

Arbuscular mycorrhizae

AM Fungi - 80% of all vascular plant species

Hyphae penetrate the cell wall of cortical cells of roots

form branched arbuscules between wall and cell membrane

Have storage organs - vesicles or auxillary cells

Asexual spores

Ectomycorrhizae

Outside root cells - hyphae do not penetrate the cell wall of cortical cells of roots

most are Basidiomycota or ascomycota

10% of all vascular plant families, many are trees

Mycorrhizae

a relationship between a plant and a fungus

phytobiont usually provides sugars and lipids - mycobiont provides minerals, water, protection

Mycorrhizae - benefits to plants

Increased plant water and mineral nutrient supply by extending the volume of the soil accessible to plants

plant to plant carbon transfer through fungal connections

Help seedlings become established or contribute to the growth of shaded plants

Mycorrhizae - benefits to fungi

sugars and lipids from plants

living in or around roots provides a protected habitat

Wood wide web

90% of all plants have mycorrhizal connection to fungi

organisms interact through their soil environments

Suzanne Simard

Found that 6% of carbon was transferred between birch and fir trees via a shared Mycorrhizal network

• further found when she shaded fir trees - they received more carbon from the birches

• source sink dynamics —> resources flow downhill

• Older ‘Mother trees’ can support seedlings

what SMNS do - Shared mycorrhizal networks

Allow transfer of carbon, nitrogen, water

can influence seedling establishment and plant survival under stress

faciliate resource redistribution based on gradients

organisms involved in SMNS

plants, mycorrhizal fungi , possibly microbes

Source - sink dynamics

source = exports resources

sink = imports resources

resources move along concentration gradients

what controls source - sink dynamics?

Light availability, plant size/age, nutrient status, seasonality, species identity and fungal partners, distance/network structure

Lignin

a key component of plant cell walls that makes wood wood

Wood cell wall structure

Lignified cell walls

Lignin - rot resistant phenolic bipolymer

cellulose

hemiceullose

Brown Rot

Exclusively by basidiomycetes

attacks dead wood

mostly associated with conifers

mostly in temperate and boreal zones

lignin remains in modified forms

degradation of hemicellulose and cellulose takes place at different stages

White rot

Basidiomycetes - all the main groups

some ascomyetes

some attack living wood - some attack dead wood

lignin is broken down leaving bleached white cellulose

selective dignification - lignin broken down more than cellulose or hemicellulose

Simultaneous rot - mostly in broad leaf trees, lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose are broken down at the same rate