Biology (H) Semester 2 Finals Study

asexual reproduction needs how many parents, what does it produce, 2 examples of asexual reproduction

asexual requires one parent, and produces clone, examples are binary fission or regeneration.

sexual reproduction needs how many parents, what does it produce, fusion of ____

sexual requires two parents and produces offspring that is unique, does fusion of gametes.

3 organisms that do asexual reproduction

plants, bacteria, archaea

1 organism that does sexual reproduction

animals (humans)

germ cells, how many chromosomes, formed from??

sperm or egg cells, haploid (23), formed from meiosis

somatic cells, how many chromosomes, formed from??

normal body cells, diploid (46), formed from mitosis

what chromosomes do both germ and somatic cells have?

autosomes (1-22) and sex chromosome (23)

karyotype

pictures of chromosomes in a cell, used identify chromosomes abnormalities

nondisjunction, can lead to…

accident in which a pair of sister chromatids fail to seperate during anaphase. leads to abnormal amounts of chromosomes

what is first part of cell cycle, has 3 phases with it. what is 2nd part of the cell cycle..

interphase (growth phase 1, DNA synthesis phase, Growth phase 2), mitotic phase

growth phase 1 of cell cycle (G1)

cell growth occurs, proteins synthesis

DNA synthesis phase of cell cycle (S)

1 chromatid is doubled to 2 chromatids per chromosome

Growth Phase 2 of cell cycle (G2)

cell growth occurs, protein synthesis, cell prepares for cell division

what is interphase in cell cycle

growing phase before cell division

mitotic phase of cell cycle

phase in which cell division occurs in cells

cancer, 1 way it can be caused

uncontrolled cell growth, can be caused by genetic mutations

tumors, causes ____, can be formed by..?

mass of abnormally growing cells, causes lumps on body, formed by cancer

benign tumor, are they easy or hard to treat

lumps that remain in one place and don’t spread, are easy to treat

malignant tumor, how difficult to treat, it is ____

tumors that spread throughout body by blood vessels or lymphatics, it is hard to treat, officially is cancer

benign tumors can be treated in 1 way

can be surgically removed

malignant tumors can be treated 2 ways

can be treated from radiation or chemotherapy

nucleotide mutations, another name for this, 3 examples of these mutations

changes in single base pairs, this is also a point mutation, examples are substitution, insertion, deletion

chromosomal mutations, what are the 4 chromosomal mutations

changes in structure or numbers of chromosomes, the 4 chromosomal mutations are deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation

duplication chromosomal mutation

extra part of chromosome is copied on

inversion chromosomal mutation, most or least damaging chromosomal mutation?

piece of chromosome cut off and flipped around and reattached, least damaging chromosome mutation

translocation chromosomal mutation and when it occurs

2 NON homologous chromosomes do crossing over, accidently swapping genetic info,occurs in prophase 1 meiosis

what are the 4 types of variation in humans

independent assortment, crossing over, random fertilization, mutations

what is independent assortment and when does it occur

in metaphase 1 of meiosis, all 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes randomly line up, causing random chromosome combinations

what is crossing over and when does it occur

occurs in prophase 1 of meiosis, homologous pairs exchange genetic info

what is random fertilization

any sperm can fertilize with any egg, which increases variation

mitosis creates ____ cells, are daughter cells same or different to parent cells, how many cell divisions

2 diploid (46 chromosomes) somatic cells, daughter cells are genetically identical to parent cells, 1 cell division

meiosis creates ____ cells, are daughter cells same or different to parent cells, how many cell divisions

4 haploid (23 chromosomes) germ cells, daughter cells are genetically unique, 2 cell divisions

2 reasons why does mitosis occur

occurs for growth and development of body, and help repair tissues

1 reason why meiosis occurs

to reduce chromosome number in gametes

what does cells in meiosis 1 form, what seperates in meiosis 1

1 diploid cell to 2 haploid cells, the pairs of homologous chromosomes seperate

what does cells in meiosis 2 form, and what is its relation to mitosis, what seperates in meiosis 2

2 haploid cells form 4 haploid gametes, very similar to mitosis, and the sister chromatids seperate in meiosis 2

what do cells in mitosis form,what seperates in mitosis

1 diploid cell forms 2 diploid cells, the sister chromatids seperate

chromatid

coiled DNA and proteins

chromatin

uncoiled DNA and proteins

homologous chromosomes, where are same genes in both chromosomes, homologous chromosomes are only in ___ cells

2 chromosomes that have same length, possess same genes in same area. only in diploid cells. one chromosome is from mom and other from dad

chromosome is composed of…

composed of 2 chromatids and 1 centromere (centromere connects the chromatids together)

what do animal cells have in mitosis that plant cells do not?

animal cells have centromosomes/centrioles on opposite ends of cell to organize spindles

what is the cytokinesis in animals cell

cleavage furrow, pinches inward cell

what is the cytokinesis in plant cells

cell plate, fusion of vesicles to form cell membrane/wall and grows outward from cell

incomplete dominance

in heterozygous traits, when alleles mix to produce new phenotype of the offspring.

what is one example of incomplete dominance

red snapdragon + white snapdragon = pink snapdragon

codominance

when both alleles are expressed in heterozygotes (like a combination)

what is an example of codominance

red cow + white cow = roan cow

is incomplete dominance or codominant traits recessive or dominant

neither of them are recessive, but they aren’t completely dominant

genotype of Blood Type A

I^A I^A or I^Ai

genotype of blood type B

I^B I^B or I^Bi

genotype of blood type AB

I^A I^B

genotype of blood type O

ii (recessive)

which blood type is the rarest and best blood type to have, why?

AB blood type, as it can receive blood from any other blood type

what is known as the universal donor blood type, and why?

O blood type can donate to any blood type because it doesn’t have any antigens

polygenic inheritance and examples

opposite of pleiotropy, when multiple genes express one trait (human skin color 3 genes, height 3 genes)

pleiotropy and examples

when one gene AFFECTS many traits (like marfan’s syndrome because it affects many traits like skin,height,organs)

in sex-linked pedigrees, are females or males affected more?

males

sex-linked genes

genes that are not related to gender located on sex chromosomes, either X or Y

which traits usually skip generations in pedigrees?

autosomal recessive traits skip generations

which traits are usually in each generation in pedigrees?

autosomal dominant traits

autosomes

non-sex chromosomes, chromosomes 1-22

what is the allele frequency problem

p + q = 1

what is the genotype frequency problem

p² + 2pq + q² = 1

what are the 5 neccessary elements that are required for equilibrium to occur

a large population, no gene flow, no mutations, no natural selection, random mating

why is a large population necessary for equilibrium

to prevent genetic drift

genetic drift + 2 examples

random chance events that cause allele frequencies to change unpredictably from one generation to the next, examples are bottleneck effect and founders effect

why is no gene flow necessary for equilibrium

so no new genes or leave a population, so gene pool is not changed

why is no mutations necessary for equilibrium

so there is no new alleles accidently made

why is no natural selection necessary for equilibrium

so every organism has equal chance of survival and reproduction

why is random mating necessary for equilibrium

so organisms are mated randomly, and do not choose mates based off of certain traits

natural selection

depending on the environment, its a PROCESS in nature where individuals with certain inherited traits are more likely to survive and reproduce

what is the 5 evidence biologists use to support that evolution happens

fossils exist, anatomy+physiology of organisms, artifical selection, biogeography, and you can see evolution occuring using microorganims or insects

artificial selection + 1 example

selective breeding to promote the occurence of desirable traits in plants/animals, like breeding certain dogs together to get unique offspring dog

biogeography + 1 example

geographical distribution of species across Earth, like darwin’s Galapagos finches species were distributed all throughout islands of galapagos

analogous structures

physical features with same function in unrelated organisms (like bird/insect wings have same function to fly)

relative fitness + 1 example

those who have better genes in the gene pool usually survive and reproduce, example is dark months being able to hide at night from predators so more dark moths are able to survive than lighter moths

homologous structures

indicates common ancestry, same physical features that have different functions in different species (bat wings and human arms)

population

group of the same species living at the same time and place

vestigial structures + 1 example

physical structures that has lost its function through evolution (like whales have a pelvis but its nonfunctional and has no purpose)

2 reasons why do some organisms have vestigial structures

organisms inherited them from their ancestors, and they have no pressure to get rid of them because they are useless

reproductive barriers, 2 categories

specific mechanisms that prevent mating from occuring between 2 species, the categories are prezygotic and postzygotic

prezygotic barriers, 5 types

things before fertilization that prevent mating between species, habitat, temporal, behavioral, gametic, and mechanical isolation

postzygotic barriers, 3 types

things after hybrid zygote is formed, reduced hybrid viability, reduced hybrid fertility, hybrid breakdown

habitat isolation, pre or post barrier

prezygotic, organisms don’t live at same place

temporal isolation, pre or post barrier

prezygotic, organisms breed at different times of year or day

behavioral isolation, pre or post barrier

prezygotic, organisms cannot recognize behaviors of others (like bird songs)

gametic isolation, pre or post barrier

prezygotic, sperm will not fuse with egg

mechanical isolation, pre or post barrier

prezygotic, physical incompatibility of reproductive structures

reduced hybrid viability, pre or post barrier

postzygotic, embryo dies because it can’t develop fully

reduced hybrid fertility, pre or post barrier

postzygotic, hybrid offspring cannot reproduce (like mule)

hybrid breakdown, pre or post barrier

postzygotic, hybrid offspring reproduces but their offspring cannot reproduce because of incompatibility of gene development

allopatric speciation, 2 examples

physical geographic isolations that seperate populations into isolated subpopulation which can lead to new species forming, examples are rivers or mountain ranges

sympatric speciation, can be caused by 3 things

a new species arises within the same geographic area as parent species, which could be caused by polypoldy, habitat differentiation, or sexual selection

speciation

evolutionary process by which one species splits into multiple species

what are the 2 mechanisms of which speciation occurs slowly or quickly

gradualism, punctuated equilibrium

gradualism

when speciation changes gradually or step by step over long periods of time

punctuated equilibrium

species barely change over long periods of time, which can be interrupted by quick periods of sudden change

biological species concept

a species is a group of population whose members can interbreed and produce fertile offspring

why is biological species concept better than other concepts

it focuses how groups of organisms arise and are maintained by reproductive isolation