HIS-106 Final

southern manifesto

The Declaration of Constitutional Principles was a document written in February and March 1956, during the 84th United States Congress, in opposition to racial integration of public places.

brown v. board of ed

ruled that U.S. state laws establishing racial segregation in public schools violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, even if the segregated facilities are equal in quality

greensboro sit ins

series of nonviolent protests in February to July 1960, primarily in the Woolworth store

SNCC

The student nonviolent coordinating committee was a pivotal, youth-led civil rights organization formed in April 1960 to coordinate direct-action protests against segregation. Emerging from the sit-in movement, SNCC, mentored by Ella Baker, focused on grassroots organizing in the Deep South, playing key roles in the Freedom Rides, March on Washington, and voter registration drives

Eugene “Bull” Connor

Comish of pub safe in bama. He was known as an ultra-segregationist with close ties to the KKK. Connor encouraged the violence that met the CORE Freedom Riders at the Birmingham Trailways Bus station by promising local Klansmen that, "He would see to it that 15 or 20 minutes would elapse before the police arrived."

booker t washington

Booker T. Washington was best known as the founder and leader of the Tuskegee Institute (now Tuskegee University) and as the most influential spokesperson for Black Americans between 1895 and 1915. A key proponent of vocational education and economic self-reliance, he championed the "[Atlanta Compromise]"—urging Black Americans to focus on industrial training and agricultural skills over immediate political agitation

web dubois

W.E.B. Du Bois was a pioneering sociologist, historian, author, and civil rights activist renowned as the leading Black protest leader in the early 20th-century U.S. He co-founded the NAACP (1909

ida b wells

She was one of the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, groundbreaking journalist

charles young

American soldier. He was the third African American graduate of the United States Military Academy, the first Black U.S. national park superintendent, first Black military attaché, first Black man to achieve the rank of colonel in the United States Army, and highest-ranking Black officer in the Regular Army until his death in 1922

The Crisis

official magazine of the NAACP founded in 1910 by W.E.B. Du Bois to champion civil rights and challenge white supremac

red summer

a period in mid-1919 during which white supremacist terrorism and racial riots occurred in more than three dozen cities across the United States, and in one rural county in Arkansas.

guinn v united states

United States Supreme Court decision that found certain grandfather clause exemptions to literacy tests for voting rights to be unconstitutional

ossain sweet

African-American physician in Detroit, Michigan. He is known for being acquitted (not guilty) of murder in 1925 after he and his friends used armed self-defense against a hostile white mob protesting after Sweet moved into their neighborhood.

smith v allwright

In 1923, the Texas Democratic Party required all voters in its primary to be white based on a state law authorizing the party to establish its own internal rules. Lonnie E. Smith, a black voter in Harris County, Texas, sued county election official S. S. Allwright for the right to vote in the primary. supreme court ruled States must make voting in their primary elections equally accessible to voters of all races, even if they do not manage the election process themselves.

marcus garvey

Marcus Garvey (1887–1940) was a Jamaican-born activist, publisher, and entrepreneur known as a leading proponent of Black nationalism, Pan-Africanism, and the "Back to Africa" movement. As founder of the Universal N*gro Improvement Association (UNIA), he championed racial pride, economic self-reliance, and the liberation of African colonies.

crazy blues (mamie smith)

Its runaway success on the Okeh label made “Crazy Blues” the first significant hit recording in the blues genre. Smith was also the first African American female popular singer to lead a commercial recording.

Black Swan records

American jazz and blues record label founded in 1921 in Harlem, New York. It was the first widely distributed label to be owned, operated, and marketed to African Americans. Founded by Harry Pace with W.C.

duke ellington

American composer and jazz musician who left a vast jazz legacy. His career spanned over 50 years, from the late 1920s when he found fame at Harlem's Cotton Club

harlem renaissance

a vibrant flowering of African American culture, literature, art, and music based in Harlem, New York, during the 1920s and 1930s. As a "spiritual coming of age," it fostered racial pride and rejected white stereotypes, serving as a pivotal era for Black artistic expression and the "New Negro Movement"

tuskeegee study

Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male was a study conducted between 1932 and 1972 by the United States Public Health Service and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention on a group of nearly 400 African American men with syphilis as well as a control group without.

double v

pivotal 1942 initiative launched by the Pittsburgh Courier, a leading Black newspaper, advocating for a dual victory for African Americans during World War II: victory against fascism abroad and victory against racism/discrimination at home. It was a massive civil rights push for equality in the military and war industries

four freedoms

President Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1941 speech articulated the "Four Freedoms"—speech, worship, want, and fear—as essential human rights,

phillip randolf

American railwayman, trade unionist and civil rights activist. In 1925, he organized and led the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, the first successful African-American-led labor union.

executive order 8802

prohibited ethnic or racial discrimination in the nation's defense industry, including in companies, unions, and federal agencies. It also set up the Fair Employment Practice Committee.

tuskeegee airmen

the first African American military aviators in the U.S. Armed Forces, trained at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama during WWII. Known as the "Red Tails," they overcame systemic segregation to fly combat missions in Europe

Gunnar Myrdal

according to Gunnar Myrdal in his 1944 work An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy, America’s dilemma was the profound conflict between its high-minded ideals—the "American Creed" of liberty, equality, and justice—and the reality of systemic racial discrimination and segregation against Black Americans

Abraham Lincoln Brigade

consisted of roughly 2,800 American volunteers—including writers, students, and laborers—who fought for the Spanish Republic against General Francisco Franco's fascist forces during the Spanish Civil Wa

rosa parks

American civil rights activist. She is best known for her 1955 refusal to move from her seat on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama, in defiance of Jim Crow racial segregation laws, which sparked the Montgomery bus boycott. She is sometimes known as the "mother of the civil rights movement".

Montgomery Improvement Association

formed on December 5, 1955, in Montgomery, Alabama, to oversee the Montgomery bus boycott, a pivotal campaign in the civil rights movement initiated after Rosa Parks’ arrest. Led by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., the association mobilized the black community through carpools and mass meetings, successfully forcing the desegregation of city buses

Earl Warren

• Warren led the Supreme Court into a new era of "living constitutionalism," focusing on protecting individual rights.

• Brown v. Board of Education

  (1954):

  Warren wrote the unanimous opinion declaring state-sponsored segregation in public schools unconstitutional, overturning "separate but equal".

• Civil Rights and Individual Liberties: His court dramatically expanded rights for criminal defendants, including the landmark Miranda v. Arizona (1966) ruling requiring police to inform suspects of their rights.

• "One Man, One Vote" (1964): The court ruled that state legislative districts must be roughly equal in population, shifting power from rural to urban areas.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

landmark U.S. federal statute that prohibits racial discrimination in voting. It was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson during the height of the civil rights movement on August 6, 1965.

Stokely Carmichael

Stokely Carmichael (later known as Kwame Ture) is best known for popularizing the phrase and philosophy of "Black Power" during the 1960s civil rights movement. As a prominent leader of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and later the Black Panther Party, he shifted the focus from integration toward black self-determination, pride, and radical political organization

black power

a 1960s–1970s campaign for Black self-determination, self-reliance, and racial pride, emerging from the mainstream civil rights movement as a demand for immediate action against white supremacy. It prioritized economic empowerment, community control, and cultural pride over integration, influencing institutions like the Black Panther Party.

linda brown

American campaigner for equality in education. As a school-girl in 1954, Brown became the center of the landmark United States civil rights case Brown v. Board of Education^.f Brown was in third grade at the time, and sought to enroll at Sumner School in Topeka, Kansas. Her admission was denied based on her race.^[2] Her lawsuit against segregation in elementary schools was ultimately successful and the resulting Supreme Court precedent overturned the 'separate but equal' doctrine which had been previously established in Plessy v. Ferguson.

freedom summer

also known as Mississippi Freedom Summer, was a campaign launched by American civil rights activists in June 1964 to register as many African-American voters as possible in the state of Mississippi

letter from

Birmingham Jail

Letter from Birmingham Jail written in 1963 explains why MLK thought people had a responsibility to follow just laws and duty to break unjust ones.

loving v virginia

unanimously declared state laws banning interracial marriage unconstitutional. By striking down Virginia's Racial Integrity Act of 1924, the ruling ended all race-based legal restrictions on marriage in the United States, upholding 14th Amendment equal protection and due process rights

malcom x

African American revolutionary and Black nationalist leader, who came from a background of poverty, family disruption, and criminal activity, to a prominent figure during the civil rights movement until his assassination in 1965

Civil Rights Act of 1964,

outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It ended segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination, marking the most significant civil rights legislation since Reconstruction

thurgood marshall

American civil rights lawyer and jurist who served as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1967 until 1991. He was the Supreme Court's first African-American justice.

Orval Faubus

36th Governor of Arkansas (1955–1967), best known for his 1957 defiance of federal school integration orders during the Little Rock Central High School crisis. As a Southern Democrat, he famously ordered the Arkansas National Guard to prevent Black students from entering the school, challenging Brown v. Board of Education

SCLC

The Southern Christian Leadership Conference is an African-American civil rights organization based in Atlanta, Georgia. SCLC is closely associated with its first president, Martin Luther King Jr., who had a large role in the American civil rights movement.

What were the reasons for the founding of the NAACP?

a. Where did the DuBois hold the initial meeting and why?

The NAACP was founded on February 12, 1909, in New York City, to combat the epidemic of lynchings, race riots (specifically the 1908 Springfield riot), and the systemic, violent oppression of African Americans. It was established by an interracial group of activists to demand full political, civil, and social rights

a. W.E.B. Du Bois held the initial, foundational meeting of the "Niagara Movement" in July 1905, on the Canadian side of Niagara Falls because they were denied accommodations at hotels on the American sid

What (if any) advances on civil rights did President Truman make?

President Truman made significant, pioneering civil rights advances, most notably issuing Executive Order 9981 in 1948 to desegregate the armed forces and ordering the desegregation of the federal workforce. He was the first president to address the NAACP, proposed federal anti-lynching legislation, and created the President's Committee on Civil Rights. 

What was Eisenhower’s initial stance on de-segregation?

a. How did he handle Little Rock?

President Eisenhower was initially cautious on desegregation, favoring gradual change over forced legal action and expressing doubt about the effectiveness of using federal law to change social customs. However, he viewed the Little Rock crisis as a direct challenge to federal authority, responding by federalizing the Arkansas National Guard and sending in the 101st Airborne Division to enforce desegregation

What was CORE attempting to do with the Freedom Rides?

intentionally challenge and desegregate interstate bus terminals and transportation throughout the American South. By testing Supreme Court rulings (notably Boynton v. Virginia), they forced federal intervention against segregated facilities.

Know the goals of the Black Panthers

a. Why and where were they formed?

Black Panther Party (BPP) was founded in October 1966 in Oakland, California, by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale. It was formed as a revolutionary organization to combat police brutality, advocate for Black self-defense, and address systemic economic and social inequality in Black communities, often outlining their goals through a "Ten-Point Program"

How were African American nurses treated during WWI?

African American nurses faced systemic discrimination, exclusion, and segregation, with the American Red Cross and Army Nurse Corps (ANC) initially refusing to enlist them. Despite over 1,800 being certified, only 18 were allowed to serve in the Army Nurse Corps,

What was President Wilson’s stance on Civil Rights?

Wilson held a segregationist stance on civil rights, actively implementing policies that separated Black and white federal employees and reversed progress in federal employment. Despite campaign promises of fairness in 1912, his administration, packed with Southern Democrats, enforced "Jim Crow" practices in federal offices,

How did Eleanor Roosevelt handle Civil Rights?

Eleanor Roosevelt championed civil rights by using her platform as First Lady to openly oppose segregation, advocate for anti-lynching legislation, and support racial equality. She cultivated relationships with NAACP leaders

During the New Deal, what did the Agricultural Adjustment Act do for African Americans

(if anything)?

The 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) generally harmed African Americans, particularly in the South, by causing mass evictions of sharecroppers and tenant farmers. By paying landowners to reduce crop production, the policy incentivized white landlords to displace Black tenants, earning it the nickname "Negro Removal Act"

What were the two marches proposed by A. Philip Randolph?

originally planned 1941 March on Washington (which was cancelled) and the successful 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom

What started the Montgomery Bus Boycott? How did it end?

The Montgomery Bus Boycott began on December 5, 1955, after Rosa Parks, an African American woman, was arrested for refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger, sparking a 381-day protest against segregated seating. It ended on December 20, 1956, after the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Browder v. Gayle that bus segregation was unconstitutional

What was Kennedy’s stance on Civil Rights?

President Kennedy's position on civil rights evolved from cautious, pragmatic support to robust moral advocacy by 1963. While recognizing it as a necessary, moral issue, he initially approached it carefully due to political pressure from Southern Democrats. He later pushed for comprehensive legislation following increased violent opposition to activists, declaring in June 1963 that civil rights was a moral, constitutional, and legal imperative

How did the Black Militancy movement affect SNCC and CORE?

The Black Militancy movement (Black Power) moved SNCC and CORE away from nonviolent integration towards Black nationalism, self-defense, and self-determination

What philosophy did the Freedom Movement pursue

centered on nonviolent resistance, largely inspired by Gandhi's Satyagraha (truth-force). It blended moral persuasion, Christian theology, and democratic ideals to achieve racial equality, dignity, and legal rights through direct action rather than physical force

The Freedom Movement worked for voting rights and de-segregation. What DIDN’T it

accomplish

While the Freedom Movement of the 1950s and 60s ended legal (de jure) segregation and secured voting rights, it did not achieve full economic equality, eradicate systemic racism, or eliminate de facto segregation in housing and education

What were the goals of Black Nationalists?

sought to empower Black people by creating self-sufficient, independent communities, aiming for economic self-reliance, racial pride, and political control over their own affairs

How did the deep south respond to de-segregation?

"Massive Resistance," a campaign of defiance involving over 450 state laws, economic coercion, and violence to block school integration. Tactics included closing public schools, funding private "white academies," and using the White Citizens' Councils for economic retaliation against Black advocates