AP Psychology Final Exam (MAY 12)

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Cultural Norms

Rules or expectations for behavior shared by a group.

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to search for, interpret, or remember information that confirms one's beliefs.

Hindsight Bias

The 'I-knew-it-all-along' phenomenon; believing, after an outcome, that you predicted it.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge or judgments.

Experimental Research

Research method involving manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect.

Case Study (Non-Experimental)

In-depth study of one individual or group.

Correlation (Non-Experimental)

Measures the relationship between two variables.

Meta-Analysis (Non-Experimental)

Statistical method combining results of many studies on the same topic.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Falsifiable

Capable of being tested and potentially disproven.

Operational Definitions

Defining variables in measurable, specific ways.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable manipulated by the experimenter.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable being measured.

Confounding Variables

Variables that unintentionally affect the dependent variable, making results unclear.

Sample

The group of participants actually studied.

Population

The larger group you want to generalize your findings to.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the population.

Random Sampling

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Convenience Sampling

Using participants who are easily accessible.

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that doesn't represent the population.

Generalizability

How well findings apply to the population.

Experimental Group

Group that receives the treatment or independent variable.

Control Group

Group that does not receive the treatment; used for comparison.

Placebo

Inactive substance or fake treatment used to control for expectations.

Single-Blind Study

Participants don't know if they're in experimental or control group.

Double-Blind Study

Neither participants nor researchers know who is in what group.

Social Desirability Bias

Tendency to respond in a way viewed favorably by others.

Qualitative Research (Structured Interviews)

Collects non-numerical data to understand thoughts/feelings.

Quantitative Research (Likert Scales)

Collects numerical data that can be statistically analyzed.

Peer Review

Other experts review a study before it's published to check for quality.

Replication

Repeating a study to see if results are consistent.

Directionality problem (correlation)

When two variables are correlated, it is unclear which one causes changes in the other.

Third variable problem (correlation)

A situation where an unmeasured third variable influences both variables in a study.

Self-report bias

The tendency of participants to inaccurately report their behaviors or feelings.

Institutional review

The process by which an Institutional Review Board (IRB) evaluates the ethics of a research proposal.

Informed consent

The process by which participants are given all relevant information about a study and voluntarily agree to take part.

Informed assent

When minors or individuals unable to provide full consent agree to participate in research.

Protection from harm

An ethical principle that ensures participants will not be exposed to physical or psychological harm during a study.

Confidentiality

The assurance that information provided by participants will not be shared without their permission.

Deception

Withholding information or misleading participants about the true purpose of a study.

Research confederates

Individuals who act as participants but are actually working with the researchers to influence the real participants.

Debriefing

Explaining the true nature and purpose of a study to participants after it concludes, especially if deception was used.

Mean

Average of a set of numbers, calculated by adding them up and dividing by the number of values.

Median

Middle number in a sorted list of numbers; divides the data set in half.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score in a data set.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.

Normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve representing the distribution of many traits.

Variation

The degree to which scores differ from each other or from the mean; reflects data spread.

Skewness

When the distribution of data is not symmetrical; can be positively (right) or negatively (left) skewed.

Bimodal distribution

a type of data distribution that has two distinct peaks (or modes) when graphed

Standard deviation

Measure of how spread out numbers are from the mean. Smaller means closer to the mean; larger means more obscure

Percentile rank

A score that shows the percentage of people who scored at or below a particular score on a test.

Regression toward mean

Tendency for extreme scores to return closer to average on retesting.

Scatterplot

Graph used to display the relationship between two variables, with points representing individual data.

Correlational coefficient

Statistical measure (r) of the relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to +1.

+1 → perfect positive correlation

• as one variable increases, the other also increases

−1 → perfect negative correlation

• as one variable increases, the other decreases

0 → no correlation

• no relationship between the variables

Effect size

A measure of the strength of a relationship or treatment effect in a study.

Statistical significance

Measure indicating whether a result is likely due to chance; typically considered significant if p < 0.05.

Biopsychologists

Psychologists who study how biology influences behavior using tools like brain imaging, animal research, and case studies.

Evolutionary Perspective

Views behavior as a result of natural selection and adaptation for survival.

Natural Selection

The process by which traits that help survival and reproduction are passed down.

Eugenics

A controversial and unethical movement to control breeding for 'desirable' traits.

Twin Studies

Research comparing identical and fraternal twins to understand the influence of genetics and environment.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord — controls most functions of the body and mind.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the part of the nervous system made up of all the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord; contains the somatic and autonomic nervous system

Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary functions (e.g., heartbeat, digestion).

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary muscle movements.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Activates 'fight or flight' response.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body after stress — 'rest and digest.'

Neuron

Nerve cell; the building block of the nervous system.

Glial Cells

Support cells for neurons that help with protection and nourishment.

Reflex Arc

the neural pathway that controls a quick, automatic response to a stimulus without conscious thinking. Involving sensory and motor neurons and interneurons.

Sensory Neurons

Carry messages from body to brain.

Motor Neurons

Carry messages from brain to muscles.

Interneurons

Connect sensory and motor neurons within the central nervous system.

All-or-Nothing Principle

Neurons fire completely or not at all.

Depolarization

When positive ions enter the neuron, making it more likely to fire.

Refractory Period

After firing, a neuron needs to reset before it can fire again.

Resting Potential

The negative charge inside a neuron when not firing.

Reuptake

Reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the sending neuron.

Threshold

Level of stimulation needed for a neuron to fire.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

Disease where the immune system attacks the myelin sheath.

Myasthenia Gravis

Neuromuscular disorder causing weakness in skeletal muscles.

Excitatory Neurotransmitter

Increases the chance of a neuron firing.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitter

Decreases the chance of a neuron firing.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter linked to reward, pleasure, movement, and attention.

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter and a hormone that plays a key role in the body’s stress response and alertness

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in learning and memory.

GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter.

Substance P

Neurotransmitter involved in pain perception.

Endorphins

Natural painkillers produced by the body.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Involved in learning, memory, and movement.

Hormones

Chemical messengers released by endocrine glands into the bloodstream.

Adrenaline (Epinephrine)

Hormone released in stress; increases heart rate and energy.

Leptin

Hormone that suppresses appetite.

Ghrelin

Hormone that stimulates hunger.

Melatonin

Hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycle.

Oxytocin

Hormone associated with bonding, trust, and love.

Agonist Drugs

Mimic or enhance the effects of neurotransmitters.

Antagonist Drugs

Block neurotransmitters from binding to receptors.