Daily AS Chem

What is the functional group for an alkane?

Contains only C-H and C-C single bonds e.g. CH₃CH₃ (ethane)

What is the functional group for an alkene?

R-C=C-R e.g. H₂C=CH₂ (ethene)

What is the functional group for an alcohol?

R-OH e.g. CH₃OH (methanol)

What is the functional group for an amine?

R-C-N-R e.g. CH₃NH₂ (methylamine)

What is the functional group for an aldehyde?

R-CH=O e.g. CH₃CH=O (ethanal)

What is the functional group for a ketone?

R-CO-R e.g. CH₃COCH₃ (propanone)

What is the functional group for a carboxylic acid?

RCOOH e.g. CH₃COOH (ethanoic acid)

What is the functional group for an amide?

RCONR e.g. CH₃CONH₂ (ethanamide)

What is the functional group for a haloalkane?

R-X e.g. CH₃CH₂Cl (chloroethane)

Hydrogen (H2 ) test

pops with a lighted splint

Oxygen (O2 ) test

relights a glowing splint

Carbonate (CO 3 2- ) test

add dilute acid; effervescence, carbon dioxide produced

Sulfate (SO4 2- ) test

add dilute nitric acid then aqueous barium nitrate. Gives white precipitate

Chloride (Cl - ) test

add dilute nitric acid then aqueous silver nitrate. Gives white precipitate. Dissolves in dilute ammonia to give colourless solution (of [Ag(NH 3 ) 2 ] + )

Bromide (Br - ) test

add dilute nitric acid then aqueous silver nitrate. Gives cream precipitate. Dissolves in concentrated ammonia but not in dilute ammonia

Iodide (I - ) test

add dilute nitric acid then aqueous silver nitrate. Gives yellow precipitate. Does not dissolve in either concentrated or dilute ammonia

Unsaturated hydrocarbons test

turns bromine water from orange to colourless.

Test for sulfate ion

add nitric acid (removes carbonate ions so no other ppt forms), add barium chloride, barium sulfate forms, white ppt.

Test for NH4+

• add NaOH

• warm

• test w/red litmus paper

• red→blue

• pungent smell

P subshell

Principal

3 types

x y z

D subshell

Diffuse

5 types

d_xy, d_xz, d_yz, d_x^2-y^2, d_z^2

F subshell

Fundamental

7 types

fz³, fz(x²-y²), fx(x²-3y²), fy(3x²-y²), fxyz, fxz², and fyz².

Permanent - induced dipole forces

• when a permanent dipole approaches a non-polar molecule, it can induce a dipole in the non-polar molecule

• Van der Waals force

Permanent-Permanent dipole

• the δ+ of one dipole attracts the δ- of the other dipole

• the dipoles act as bar magnets

• Van der Waals force

London / Dispersion forces | Induced-Induced

• Non-polar - Non-polar

• Constant movement of atoms causes distortion of distribution of charge in the electron charge

• makes an “instantaneous dipole”

• these “instantaneous dipoles” can induce other dipoles in neighbouring atoms

• these small induced dipoles attract one another, causing intermolecular forces, called “London Forces”

H bonding

• Intermolecular bonding between molecules containing N, O, F and the H atom of -NH, -OH, -H

• H attracts LP of N O F

• the reason why ice is less dense than water

• The reason for water’s high M.P. and B.P.

2 BP

0 LP

(shape)

• linear

• 180°

3 BP

0 LP

(shape)

• trigonal planar

• 120°

2 BP

1 LP

(shape)

• non-linear/bent/Vshape

• 117.5°

• (e=LP)

4 BP

0 LP

(shape)

• Tetrahedral

• 109.5°

3 BP

1 LP

(shape)

• Trigonal pyramidal

• 107°

• (E=LP)

2 BP

2 LP

(shape)

• Bent/Linear/V-shape

• 104.5°

5 BP

0 LP

(shape)

• trigonal bipyramidal

• 90° between the BP on the same plane or 120°

4 BP

1 LP

(shape)

• trigonal pyramidal

• 119° or 89°

OR

• see-saw

• 89°

3 BP

2 LP

(shape)

• Trigonal planar

• 120°

OR

• T shape

• 89°

6 BP

0 LP

(shape)

• Octahedral

• 90°

5 BP

1 LP

(shape)

• square pyramid

• 89°

4 BP

2 LP

(shape)

• square planar

• 90°

Sulfuric Acid

H₂SO₄

Hydrochloric Acid

HCl

Nitric Acid

HNO₃

Sodium Hydroxide

NaOH

Potassium Hydroxide

KOH

Ammonia

NH₃

Acid Definition

An acid is a substance that increases the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water. 

A proton Donor

Base definition

a substance that can accept a proton (H+) from an acid

Alkali Definition

An alkali is a base that is soluble in water and releases hydroxide (𝑂𝐻−) ions into the solution.

+ve ion

Cation

-ve ion

Anion

Carbonate

CO₃^2-

Acid + Carbonate →

→ Salt + Carbon Dioxide + Water

Acid + Metal oxide →

→ Salt + Water

Acid + alkali →

→ Salt + Water

Acid + Metal →

→ Salt + Hydrogen

Percentage yield equation

Atom economy

G2 metals

• more reactive down group

  • bigger atomic radius

  • more e- shielding

  • less attraction on outer e-

• 2Ca(g) + O2(g) → 2CaO(s)

• Ca(s) + 2H2O(L) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

• Ca(s) + 2HClaq) → CaCl + H2

• Hydroxides get more soluble down group

  • alkalinity increases down group

• Ca(OH)2 is used as lime to neutralise acidic

• Mg(OH)2 used for indigestion

• CaCO3 is used for building

G17 Halogens

• down group reactivity decreases

  • bigger radius

  • more e- shielding

  • less attraction on incoming e-

• Chlorine oxidises both Br and I ions

  • Bromine can only oxidise I ions

  • Iodine does not oxidise either Cl or Br ions.

• Cl(aq) + HO(l) → HCO(aq) + HC(aq)

  • used in water purification

• Cl(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → NaC(aq) + NaCIO(aq) + H2O(l)

  • cold dilute aq NaOH

Carbonate (CO 3 2- ) test

add dilute acid; effervescence, carbon dioxide produced

Sulfate (SO4 2- ) test

add dilute nitric acid then aqueous barium nitrate. Gives white precipitate

Chloride (Cl - ) test

add dilute nitric acid then aqueous silver nitrate. Gives white precipitate. Dissolves in dilute ammonia to give colourless solution (of [Ag(NH 3 ) 2 ] + )

Bromide (Br - ) test

add dilute nitric acid then aqueous silver nitrate. Gives cream precipitate. Dissolves in concentrated ammonia but not in dilute ammonia

Iodide (I - ) test

add dilute nitric acid then aqueous silver nitrate. Gives yellow precipitate. Does not dissolve in either concentrated or dilute ammonia

Δ_rH^⦵

The enthalpy change associated with a given reaction under stp 

Δ_fH^⦵

Enthalpy change for 1 mol of a compound being formed under ⦵. 

Use fractions to balance equations → HAS TO BE 1 MOL OF PRODUCT!!!!

Δ_cH^⦵

Enthalpy change when 1 mol of a substance is completely combusted in O2, forming products in standard states at step) under ⦵. 

Exothermic

Δ_neutH^⦵

Neut. /  n = neutralisation 

Enthalpy change for the formation of 1 mol of water from a neutralisation reaction under ⦵. 

Endothermic

-57 – -58 kj mol^-1

oxidation of alcohol

Alcohol class	Reaction conditions	Product	Observation
1º	Gentle heating	Aldehyde	Orange → green
1º	Stronger heating under reflux	Carboxylic acid	Orange → green
2º	Heat under reflux	Ketone	Orange → green
3º	N/A	No reaction	Remains orange

free radical substitution process