Conquest of the Americas and the Reconquista

Al-Andalus

A term used to refer to the general realms of Iberia (present-day Spain and Portugal) during the age of Islamic ascendancy from the Emirate of Cordoba to the fall of the various taifa states.

(Battle of) Clavijo

A mythical battle alleged to have occurred in 722 CE, the battle is a basis of Spanish traditions and popular myth surrounding Santiago (St. James).

Crusade

An expedition or campaign by, typically, European Christians against non-Christians, in an attempt to initiate social or political change with religion.

Encomienda

A Spanish labor system that rewarded conquerors with a grant of land from the Spanish Crown and with labor from the conquered, typically non-Christian, population.

Fueros

A charter granted from a bishop, king, or noble to a newly established community, which legally empowered the community to tax, self-govern, and enforce laws.

(Battle of) Granada

The last of the Reconquista conflicts and a battle that was fought for months from 1491-1492, which ultimately resulted in the end of the Reconquista.

Hidalgo

Typically, a lower form of nobility within Spanish and Portuguese nobility was allowed to carry titles and privileges of nobility.

(Las) Huestes (Hosts)

A term used to designate the organized fighting force drawn from the general population during the Reconquista era.

(Battle of) Las Navas de Tolosa

A major turning point battle during the Reconquista, resulting in a major victory for Christian kingdoms, particularly Alfonso VIII's Kingdom of Castile.

Iberia

A subregion of Europe including the modern states of Spain and Portugal, and a term to generally refer to the region.

Indulgences

A teaching in the Roman-Catholic Church that provides a way to reduce the amount of punishment one must undergo for the forgiveness of sins.

Inquisition

A judicial procedure, or trial, began to fight heresy, blasphemy, witchcraft, and apostasy by the Catholic Church.

Jizya

A tax historically levied by Muslim states, according to Islamic law, on non-Muslim subjects such as Christians and Jews in Al-Andalus.

Marranos

A term used to refer to Spanish and Portuguese Jews who converted or were forced to convert to Christianity by the Spanish or Portuguese crowns.

Moors

A term used by Christians during the Reconquista to designate Muslim populations with origins in North Africa and the Middle East.

Mudéjars

Muslims who chose to remain in Iberia after Christian conquests.

Muladi/Muwalladun

Noble families that converted from Christianity to Islam.

(Trial by) Ordeal

A judicial process (trial) originating in ancient practices that determined an accused person's guilt or innocence by subjecting them to a dangerous or painful test.

Order of Calatrava

One of the four main military-religious orders to arise out of the Reconquista; it was founded in Castile to protect pilgrims and the frontiers of Christian principalities.

Order of Santiago

The most preeminent of the Iberian Christian military-religious orders of knights, founded around 1160.

Parias

A form of tribute paid by the taifa states of Al-Andalus to the Christian kingdoms of the north in exchange for protection and peace.

Pilgrimage

A journey to a sacred place or shrine, often for religious or spiritual reasons.

Reconquista/Reconquest

The period of time between 711 and 1492, in which the Christian kingdoms of Spain struggled with the ruling Muslims over control of the Iberian Peninsula.

Santiago (de Compostela) (Matamoros)

Also known as St. James the Moor-slayer, given to a representation of the apostle James the Great as a legendary and miraculous figure who appeared at the legendary Battle of Clavijo.

Abu Abdullah (Boabdil)

Last Muslim ruler of Granada, who consented to govern Granada as a tributary kingdom under Ferdinand and Isabella.

Alfonso VIII

King of Castile from 1158-1214, notable for being defeated by the Almohads at the Battle of Alarcos, but then rallying various Christian princes to defeat the Almohads at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa.

Don Juan Pacheco

A Castilian nobleman whose biography became a matter of legend and inspiration for aspiring knights and soldiers during the Reconquista.

El Cid (Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar)

A Castilian knight and ruler of Valencia who earned the honorific title of as-Sayyid or El Campeador for his prolific leadership amongst armies of Muslims and Christians.

Ferdinand II

The Catholic king of Aragon, Castile, and other territories who married Princess Isabella of Castile in 1469 and achieved the Kingdom of Granada's conquest in 1492.

Isabella I

Queen regnant of Castile and Leon who became Queen of Castile in 1474 and laid the foundation for the political unification of Spain.

(Tomás de) Torquemada

A Dominican friar who became the first Grand Inquisitor of Spain and is best known for his ruthless prosecution in the Spanish Inquisition.

Codex

A codex was a painted manuscript that preserved indigenous knowledge through images and symbols.

Codex Mendoza

Records tribute lists, conquests, and scenes of daily life, showing how the Mexica Empire was organized and how the Spanish studied it to govern their new colony.

Florentine Codex

Compiled by Bernardino de Sahagún and Nahua scholars, documents Mexica religion, society, and the conquest, including the fall of Tenochtitlan from a Nahua point of view.

Flower Wars

Ritualized battles fought between the Mexica and neighboring city-states, intended to capture, not kill, enemy warriors for sacrifice in major religious ceremonies.

Massacre at Cholula

An incident in October 1519 where Spanish and Tlaxcalan forces killed thousands of inhabitants of Cholula, claimed as a preemptive strike by Spaniards.

La Noche Triste

The 'Night of Sorrows' (June 30, 1520), when Spaniards and their allies attempted to flee Tenochtitlan after an uprising against them.

Templo Mayor

The 'Great Temple' was the main pyramid and ceremonial center of Tenochtitlan, dedicated to the gods Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc.

Tóxcatl Massacre

An event in 1520 when Pedro de Alvarado ordered a surprise attack on unarmed Mexica nobles and priests during a religious festival.

Triple Alliance

The political and military coalition formed in the 15th century by the city-states of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan.

Tlaxcalans

A confederation of independent Nahua city-states and long-standing enemies of the Mexica who later allied with Cortés.

Texcocans and Huexotzincans

Former members or subjects of the Mexica-led Triple Alliance who shifted allegiance to Cortés as his campaign advanced.

Veracruz

La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, the coastal settlement founded by Cortés in 1519, which became the first Spanish town in mainland Mexico.

Smallpox

A highly contagious disease introduced to the Americas by the Spanish in 1520, which spread rapidly and killed a large portion of the population.

Hernán Cortés

A Spanish conquistador who led the 1519 expedition from Cuba that resulted in the fall of the Mexica (Aztec) Empire.

Jerónimo de Aguilar

A Spanish Franciscan friar who had been shipwrecked off the Yucatán coast around 1511 and lived for years among the Maya before being rescued by Cortés in 1519.

Malintzin (Doña Marina / La Malinche)

A Nahua woman who played a central role as interpreter, cultural intermediary, and advisor to Hernán Cortés during the Spanish conquest of Mexico.

Moctezuma II

The ninth tlatoani (ruler) of Tenochtitlan and head of the Triple Alliance when Hernán Cortés arrived in 1519.

Diego Velázquez

The Governor of Cuba who originally commissioned expeditions to explore and conquer parts of the Yucatán and mainland Mexico.

Bernal Díaz del Castillo

A soldier in Cortés's expedition who later authored The True History of the Conquest of New Spain, providing a detailed eyewitness narrative of the conquest.

Pedro de Alvarado

One of Cortés's principal captains, known for his bravery and impulsiveness, who ordered the massacre of Mexica nobles and priests during a religious festival.

Pánfilo de Narváez

A Spanish officer dispatched by Governor Velázquez with a force to arrest Cortés for insubordination.

Cuitláhuac

Brother of Moctezuma II and his immediate successor as tlatoani (ruler) of Tenochtitlan, who led the Mexica resistance that expelled the Spaniards from the city.

Cuauhtémoc

The last tlatoani (ruler) of Tenochtitlan, who organized the defense of the city during the siege of 1521.