AP Psychology all year Myer's Vocab

24 character strengths and virtues

a classification system to identify positive traits; organized into categories of wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.

Accommodation

in sensation and perception, the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus images of near or far objects on the retina.

Accommodation

in developmental psychology, adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new Information.

achievement motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard.

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned.

Acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

active listening

empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and seeks clarification. A feature of Rogers’ person-centered therapy.

actor-observer bias

the tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external causes, but for observers to attribute others’ behavior to internal causes. This contributes to the fundamental attribution error (which focuses on our explanations for others’ behavior).

acute/relative schizophrenia

a form of schizophrenia that can begin at any age; frequently occurs in response to a traumatic event, and from which recovery is much more likely.

adaptation-level phenomenon

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience.

Addiction

an everyday term for compulsive substance use (and sometimes for dysfunctional behavior patterns, such as out-of-control gambling) that continue despite harmful consequences. (See also substance use disorder.)

Adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

aerobic exercise

sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; also helps alleviate anxiety.

affiliation need

the need to build and maintain relationships and to feel part of a group.

Aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.

Agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action.

Agoraphobia

fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide open places, where one may experience a loss of control and panic.

Algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier — but also more error-prone — use of heuristics.

all-or-none response

a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

Altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

Amygdala

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

Androgyny

displaying traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine psychological characteristics.

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly underweight, and has an inaccurate self-perception; sometimes accompanied by excessive exercise.

Antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action.

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories.

antianxiety drugs

drugs used to control anxiety and agitation.

antidepressant drugs

drugs used to treat depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, and posttraumatic stress disorder.

antipsychotic drugs

drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorders.

antisocial behavior

negative, destructive, harmful behavior. The opposite of prosocial behavior.

antisocial personality disorder

a personality disorder in which a person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members; may be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist.

anxiety disorders

a group of disorders characterized by excessive fear and anxiety and related maladaptive behaviors.

Aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding).

approach and avoidance motives

the drive to move toward (approach) or away from (avoid) a stimulus.

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn

Asexual

having no sexual attraction toward others.

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).

Attachment

an emotional tie with others; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers and showing distress on separation.

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

a psychological disorder marked by extreme inattention and/or hyperactivity and Impulsivity.

Attitudes

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation (a situational attribution) or the person’s stable, enduring traits (a dispositional attribution).

Audition

the sense or act of hearing.

autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by limitations in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors.

autokinetic effect

the illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room.

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings.

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.

aversive conditioning

associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol).

Axon

the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

babbling stage

the stage in speech development, beginning around 4 months, during which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds that are not all related to the household language.

Barbiturates

drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.

basal metabolic rate

the body’s resting rate of energy output.

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

behavior feedback effect

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions.

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

behavior therapy

therapy that uses learning principles to reduce unwanted behaviors.

behavioral approach

focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development.

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

belief perseverance

the persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

Big Five factors

five traits — openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism — that describe personality. (Also called the five-factor model.)

binocular cue

a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes.

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes.

biomedical therapy

prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person’s physiology.

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

bipolar disorders

a group of disorders in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania.

bipolar I disorder

the most severe form, in which people experience a euphoric, talkative, highly energetic, and overly ambitious state that lasts a week or longer.

bipolar II disorder

a less severe form of bipolar in which people move between depression and a milder hypomania.

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there.

Blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it.

bottom-up processing

information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information.

Brainstem

the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.

broaden-and-build theory

proposes that positive emotions broaden our awareness, which over time helps us build novel and meaningful skills and resilience that improve well-being.

Broca’s area

a frontal lobe brain area, usually in the left hemisphere, that helps control language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech.

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder in which a person’s binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) is followed by inappropriate weight-loss-promoting behavior, such as vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise.

Burnout

physical, emotional, or mental exhaustion, brought on by an overburdening workload, which may negatively impact motivation, performance, and attitude.

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

case study

a non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Catharsis

in psychology, the idea that “releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges.

Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory

the theory that our intelligence is based on g as well as specific abilities, bridged by Gf and Gc.

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life-support center.

central executive

a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord.

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments.

Cerebellum

the hindbrain’s “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain’s cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center.

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness.

character strengths and virtues

a classification system to identify positive traits; organized into categories of wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.

chronic/process schizophrenia

a form of schizophrenia in which symptoms usually appear by late adolescence or early adulthood. As people age, psychotic episodes last longer and recovery periods shorten.

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

circadian rhythm

our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food).

Cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses.

cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.