anatomy chapter 1

gross anatomy

\- large structures

\- easily observable

microscopic anatomy

\- structures are too small to be seen with the naked eye

\- cells and tissues can be viewed only with a microscope

what are the six levels of structural organization?

1- atoms

2- cells

3- tissues

4- organs

5- organ systems

6- organism

integumentary system

1- forms the external body covering & includes hair and fingernails

2- waterproofs the body

3- cushions and protects deeper tissues from injury

4- produces vitamin D with the help of sunlight

5- excretes salts in prespiration

6- helps regulate body temperature

7- location of cutaneous nerve receptors

skeletal system

1- consists of bones, cartilages, ligaments, and joints

2- provides muscle attachment for movement

3- protects vital organs

4- site of blood cell formation

5- stores minerals

muscular system

1- skeletal muscles contract

2- produces movement of bones

nervous system

1- fast acting control system

2- consists of brain, spinal chord, nerves, and sensory receptors

3- responds to internal and external stimuli

4- sensory receptors detect changes

5- messages are sent to the central nervous system

6- central nervous system assesses information and activates effectors (muscles and glands)

endocrine system

1- secretes chemical molecules, called hormones, into the blood

2- body functions controlled by hormones include:

* growth
* reproduction
* use of nutrients

3- endocrine glands include

* Pituitary Glad
* Thyroid and Parathyiods
* Adrenal Glands
* Thymus
* Pancreas
* Pineal Gland
* Ovaries and Testes

cardiovascular system

1- includes heart and blood vessels

2- heart pumps blood

3- vessels transport blood to tissues

4- blood transports

* oxygen and carbon dioxide
* nutrients
* hormones

5- blood also contains white blood cells and chemicals that provide protection from foreign invaders

lymphatic system

1- includes lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and lymphoid organs

2- complements the cardiovascular system by returning the leaked fluids back to bloodstream

3- lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs cleanse the blood

4- houses white blood cells, which are involved in immunity

respiratory system

1- includes the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs

2- gases are exchanged with the blood through air sacs in the lungs

* supplies the body with oxygen
* removes carbon dioxide

digestive system

1- includes the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, and accessory lungs

2- breaks down food

3- allows for nutrient absorption into blood

4- eliminates indigestible material as feces

urinary system

1- includes the kidney, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra

2- eliminates nitrogenous wastes

3- maintains acid-base balance

4- regulates water and electrolyte balance

5- helps regulate normal blood pressure

reproductive system

1- for males includes testes, scrotum, penis, accessory glands, and duct system

* testes produce sperm
* duct system carries sperm to exterior

2- for females includes the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina

* ovaries produce eggs
* uterus provides sire of development for fetus

metabolism

1- breaks down complex molecules into smaller ones

2- builds larger molecules from smaller ones

3- produces energy (ATP)

4- regulated by hormones

responsiveness (irratability)

ability to sense changes and react

exretion

1- eliminates excreta (waste) from metabolic reactions

2- wastes may be removed in urine, feces, or sweat

reproduction

1- occurs on cellular level or organismal level

2- on cellular level---new cells are used for growth and repair

3- on organismal level---the reproductive system handles the task

growth

1- increases cell size or body size (through increasing the number of cells)

2- hormones play a major role

survival needs

1- nutrients: chemicals used for energy and cell building

* include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals
* oxygen
* required for chemical reactions
* made available by the cooperation of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems

2- water

* 60-80 percent of body weight
* most abundant chemical in human body
* provides fluid base for body secretions and excretions

3- normal body temperature

* 98.6 degree Fahrenheit
* below temp: chemical reactions slow and stop
* above temp: chemical reactions proceed too fast

4- atmospheric pressure

* must be appropriate for gas exchange

anatomical position

1- standard body position used to avoid confusion

2- terminology refers to this position regardless of actual body position

3- stand erect, feet parallel, arms hanging from the sides with palms facing forward and thumbs pointing away from the body

superior (cranial or cephalic/above)

toward the head

inferior (caudal/below)

away from the head

anterior (ventral)

toward or at the front of the body

posterior (dorsal)

toward or at the backside of the body

medial

toward ot at the midline of the body; on the inner side

lateral

away from the midline of the body; on the outer side

intermediate

between a more medial and a more lateral structure

proximal

close to the origin of the body part or point of attachment to a limb to the body trunk

distal

farther from the origin of a body part or the paint of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

superficial (external)

toward or at the body surface

deep (internal)

away from the body surface; more internal

sagittal section

divides body into left and right parts

median/midsagittal section

divided into 2 equal halves

frontal/coronal section

divides body into anterior and posterior parts

transverse/cross sectio

divides body into superior and inferior parts

what are the two internal body cavities?

1) dorsal 2) ventral

what are the two dorsal cavities?

1) cranial 2) spinal

what are the two ventral cavities?

1) thoracic 2)abdominopelvic

what does the crainial cavity cover?

1) houses the brain 2) protected by the skull

what does the spinal cavity cover?

1) houses the spinal chord 2) protected by the vertebrae

what does the thoracic cavity cover?

1) houses heart, lungs, trachea, and other organs

2) protected by the rib cage

what does the abdominopelvic cavity cover?

1) superior cavity houses stomach, liver, intestines and other organs

* protected only by trunk muscles

3) inferior cavity houses reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum

* protected somewhat by bony pelvis
* no physcial structure separates abdominal from pelvic cavaties
* 4 quadrants
* 9 regions

what is homeostasis?

maintenence of relatively stable internal conditions

what are the two main controlling systems of homeostasis?

nervous and endocrine

what is homeostatic imbalance?

a disturbance in homeostasis and results in disease

what are the 3 components on homeostatic control mechanisms?

1) receptor

2) control center

3) effector

what does a receptor do?

1. detects stimulus/change
2. sends info to control center along afferent pathway

what does the control center do?

1) determines the set poing

2) analyzes information

3) determines appropriate response

what does the effector do?

carries out the response to the stimulus

what does negative feedback do?

1) includes most homeostatic control mechanisms

2) shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity

3) works like a household thermostat

what does positive feedback do?

1. works to reinforce or intesify the change

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examples of negative feedback loop

* homeostatic system
* blood sugar regulation

examples of positive feedback loop

* child birth
* lactation