Contrast two approaches for explaining prosocial behaviour ERQ

INTRODUCTION - Approaches to Prosocial Behaviour

Prosocial behaviour is any action intended to benefit others. Explanations for prosocial behaviour can be biological, focusing on innate and evolutionary mechanisms, or psychological, focusing on cognitive and emotional processes.

Definition - Prosocial Behaviour

Prosocial behaviour refers to actions intended to help or benefit another person or society, including sharing, donating, cooperating, and assisting others.

Definition - Altruism

Altruism is a selfless form of prosocial behaviour in which the helper provides aid at a cost or risk to themselves, with no expectation of personal gain.

Definition - Kin Selection Theory

Kin selection theory (biological approach) suggests that people are more likely to help close genetic relatives to ensure the survival of shared genes, enhancing evolutionary fitness.

Simmons et al. (1977) - Aim

To test kin selection theory by investigating whether close relatives of kidney patients would be willing to donate a kidney.

Simmons et al. (1977) - Participants

Opportunity sample of potential kidney donors who were relatives of patients at University of Minnesota hospitals.

Simmons et al. (1977) - Procedure

Participants completed questionnaires asking if they would donate a kidney to a close relative. Patients rated their emotional closeness to each potential donor before the choice was made.

Simmons et al. (1977) - Results

Parents agreed to donate 86% of the time; siblings 47%. Donors reported feeling closer than non-donors (63% vs 42%).

Simmons et al. (1977) - Conclusion

Kin selection theory explains some prosocial behaviour: people are more likely to help close relatives to preserve shared genetic material.

Simmons et al. (1977) - Strengths

High ecological validity because actual kidney patients were used. Supports evolutionary reasoning for altruism.

Simmons et al. (1977) - Limitations

14% of parents refused to donate, suggesting other factors influence helping. Age, sex, health, and personal preferences also affect willingness, reducing the explanatory power of the theory.

Definition - Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis (EAH)

The EAH (psychological approach) proposes that empathy motivates prosocial behaviour. Helping may be altruistic or influenced by self-oriented motives such as relieving personal distress or gaining social approval.

Toi & Batson (1982) - Aim

To investigate how empathy and ease of escape influence prosocial behaviour.

Toi & Batson (1982) - Participants

84 female psychology students.

Toi & Batson (1982) - Procedure

Participants listened to an interview of "Carol," a student who broke her legs. Empathy was manipulated (focus on Carol's feelings vs. factual info). Ease of escape was manipulated (Carol returning next week vs. staying home). DV: willingness to help by sharing class notes.

Toi & Batson (1982) - Results

Participants in the high-empathy condition were more likely to help. Low-escape participants were slightly more likely to help, but empathy was the stronger predictor.

Toi & Batson (1982) - Conclusion

Empathy motivates prosocial behaviour. Emotional concern can increase helping independent of personal gain.

Toi & Batson (1982) - Strengths

Controlled lab study with clear manipulation of empathy and escape, increasing internal validity. Provides evidence for psychological mechanisms behind altruism.

Toi & Batson (1982) - Limitations

Small, all-female student sample reduces generalisability. Lab setting may reduce ecological validity. Motivation may still involve some self-interest, complicating interpretation as "pure altruism."

Holistic Discussion - Biological vs. Psychological Explanations

Biological approaches explain prosocial behaviour as innate and adaptive. Kin selection theory shows that genetic relatedness predicts helping, suggesting an evolutionary mechanism. Psychological approaches emphasise cognition and emotion, such as empathy, which motivates helping regardless of genetic relatedness.

Holistic Discussion - Role of Motivation

Biological explanations assume prosocial behaviour is largely unconscious and reflexive, aimed at gene preservation. Psychological explanations highlight conscious processes and affective states, suggesting that motivations can be egoistic or altruistic.

Holistic Discussion - Methodological Considerations

Biological studies like Simmons et al. often use real-world scenarios (high ecological validity), whereas psychological studies like Toi & Batson use lab experiments (high internal validity). Each method has trade-offs for generalisation.

Holistic Discussion - Scope and Applicability

Kin selection theory mainly applies to helping relatives and does not fully account for helping strangers. Empathy-altruism theory can explain helping of both close others and strangers, offering a broader explanatory scope.

Holistic Discussion - Integrative View

Prosocial behaviour is likely influenced by both biological predispositions and psychological states. Evolutionary mechanisms may predispose humans to help close relatives, while empathy and social cognition can extend helping to non-relatives in society.

Holistic Discussion - Limitations and Interactions

Neither approach fully explains all prosocial behaviour alone. Individual differences, cultural norms, and situational factors interact with both biological and psychological mechanisms to influence helping behaviour.

Holistic Discussion - Evaluation of Evidence

Empirical evidence supports both approaches: Simmons et al. validates evolutionary predictions for kin, while Toi & Batson demonstrates empathy's role. Combining evidence provides a more comprehensive understanding of prosocial behaviour.