PSYCH 202: Theory of Mind

Neuroscience Methods What is Social Cognitive Neuroscience

An interdisciplinary field that studies socio-emotional phenomena at three levels

• Social: behaviour and experiences in social contexts

• Cognitive: information-processing mechanisms underlying social behaviour

• Neural: brain systems supporting these processes

Neuroscience Methods Which disciplines contribute to social cognitive neuroscience

Social psychology, developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, evolutionary biology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience.

Neuroscience Methods Why is neuroscience useful for studying social cognition

It allows researchers to test competing psychological theories and identify the brain systems supporting social cognitive processes

Neuroscience Methods How can cognitive neuroscience inform social psychology

By applying knowledge about memory, attention, language, and emotion systems to understand social cognition

Neuroscience Methods Why should neuroimaging findings in social cognition be interpreted cautiously

Because scanner environments often fail to replicate real-world social experiences and motivations

Neuroscience Methods Why might findings from neuroimaging studies of morality and deception lack ecological validity

Tasks labelled “moral” or “deceptive” in scanners are often much simpler than real-life moral dilemmas or acts of deception

Neuroscience Methods Why is social cognition important for human survival

It helps humans form alliances, select mates, compete for resources, follow social norms, and maintain social relationships

Neuroscience Methods Why is understanding other people’s thoughts important

Predicting others’ behaviour helps us navigate social interactions and avoid social exclusion

Levels of ToM What is Theory of Mind (ToM)

The ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others in order to explain and predict behaviour

Levels of ToM What are alternative names for ToM

Mentalising and mind-reading

Levels of ToM What are mental states

Internal, unobservable states such as beliefs, desires, intentions, emotions, and knowledge

Levels of ToM Why are mental states important for ToM

They are used to explain and predict behaviour even when they differ from reality

Levels of ToM What does it mean that ToM is recursive

Mental state attribution can be embedded within other mental state attributions

Levels of ToM What is a first-order belief

Understanding what another person knows or believes

• “I know that you know X”

Levels of ToM What is a second-order belief

Understanding that one person believes about another person’s belief

• Example: “I know that you know that I know X”

Levels of ToM What does Heider-Simmel animation demonstrate

Huamans spontaneously attribute intentions, emotions, and personalities to simple moving shapes

Levels of ToM Why is the Heider-Simmel animation important for ToM research

It demonstrates our natural tendency to infer mental states and construct social narratives

Levels of ToM What is “Theory” Theory

The idea that people use commonsense “folk psychology” to infer others’ mental states from beliefs, desires, and intentions

Levels of ToM What is Simulation Theory

The idea that people understand others by imagining themselves in thesae situation and simulating their experiences

Levels of ToM Which theory best explains ToM

Evidence suggests that both Theory Theory and Simulation Theory are used depending on the situation

Development of ToM What is gaze following/monitoring

Following another person’s gaze to establish shared attention

• 8-10 months

Development of ToM What is proto-declarative pointing

Pointing to share interest in an object rather than requesting it

• ~1 year

Development of ToM What is attribution of mental states

Understanding that people have desires and emotions that influence behaviour

• ~3 years

Development of ToM What is the “seeing leads to knowing” milestone

Understanding that knowledge depends on what information someone has seen or experiences

• 3-4 years

Development of ToM What is meta-representation

The ability to think about another person’s thoughts or beliefs

• 4-5 years

Development of ToM What is the purpose of a false belief task

To assess whether someone understands that another person can hold a belief that differs from reality

Development of ToM In the Sally-Anne task, what demonstrates successful ToM

Predicting that Sally will search where she last saw the object rather than where it actually is

Development of ToM What is a first-order false belief

Understanding that another person has a mistaken belief about reality

Development of ToM What is a second-order false belief

Understanding that one person has a mistaken belief about another person’s belief

ToM and ASD What does research suggest about ToM in autism

Many autistic individuals show differences in ToM processing compared with neurotypical individuals

ToM and ASD What does the meta-analytic evidence suggest about ToM performance in autism

There is a moderate average difference, but substantial overlap exists between autistic and neurotypical groups

ToM and ASD What behavioural differences were observed in autistic adults during ToM animation tasks

They used less mental-state language and provided less appropriate descriptions of ToM animations

Neural Network Supporting ToM Which brain regions are most consistently associated with ToM

• posterior Superior Temporal Sulcus (pSTS)

• Temporo-Parietal Junction (TPJ)

• Medial Prefrontal Cortex (mPFC)

• Precuneus

Neural Network Supporting ToM What is the primary role of the pSTS in ToM

Perspective-taking and processing socially relevant visual information

Neural Network Supporting ToM What social cues does the pSTS proces

Gaze direction, eye movements, and visual perspectives

Neural Network Supporting ToM Why is gaze perception important for ToM

It helps determine what another person is attending to and what information they possess.

Neural Network Supporting ToM What is the key function of the pSTS?

Gaze perception and perspective-taking.

Neural Network Supporting ToM What is the key function of the mPFC?

Mentalising about self and others.

Neural Network Supporting ToM What is the key function of the TPJ?

Representing others’ beliefs and perspectives

Neural Network Supporting ToM What did PET studies find about pSTS and mPFC activity in autism

Autistic participanys showed reduced activation in these regions during ToM tasks

Neural Network Supporting ToM What does reduced pSTS and mPFC suggest

These regions play important roles in ToM processing

Neural Network Supporting ToM What evidence suggests the TPJ is involved in ToM

TPJ activation increases during false belief tasks compared with false photograph control tasks (analogous to false belief task)

Neural Network Supporting ToM What was the purpose of the false photograph control condition

To control for reasoning about outdated representations by ruling out mental-state attribution

Neural Network Supporting ToM What did Saxe’s false belief studies show

• false belief condition showed a change in signal in TPJ, while false photograph condition did not

• Both left and right TPJ respond selectively to false belief reasoning

TPJ Debate: Domain-Specific vs Domain-General What is Rebecca Saxe’s view of TPJ function

TPJ is domain-specific for ToM, particularly perspective-taking

TPJ Debate: Domain-Specific vs Domain-General What is Jason Mitchell’s view of TPJ function

• TPJ is not only a ToM region

• TPJ also active in non-social tasks involving

• Default Mode Network ACTIVATED BY FALSE BELIEF TASK

TPJ Debate: Domain-Specific vs Domain-General Why might attentional shifting be relevant to ToM?

Understanding another person's perspective may require shifting attention away from one's own perspective.

What broad function does the mPFC serve in social cognition?

thinking about people, including both oneself and others.

What types of tasks activate the mPFC?

Theory of Mind tasks, personality judgments, self-referential processing, and autobiographical memory tasks.

How does mPFC activation support Simulation Theory?

The same brain systems involved in thinking about oneself are recruited when thinking about others.

Functional Specialisation within the mPFC Which mPFC region is most associated with cognitive Theory of Mind?

Anterior/Ventral (BA10)

Functional Specialisation within the mPFC What is cognitive ToM

Reasoning about what another person is thinking or believing.

unctional Specialisation within the mPFC Which mPFC region is most associated with emotional Theory of Mind?

Orbital

Functional Specialisation within the mPFC What is emotional ToM

Reasoning about how anothe rperson feels emotionally

Functional Specialisation within the mPFC Which mPFC region is most active when thinking about similar others

Anterior/Ventral

Functional Specialisation within the mPFC Which mPFC region is most active when thinking about dissimilar others

Dorsal

Functional Specialisation within the mPFC Why might dorsal mPFC be recruited for dissimilar others

Because self-simulation becomes less useful, requiring alternative mentalising strategies