Anatomy and Physiology 12 Final Exam Study Guide

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering the major topics for the Anatomy and Physiology 12 Final Exam, including biochemistry, genetics, and organ systems.

Membrane Potential

The difference in electrical charge across a cell membrane, typically measured in millivolts ($mV$), as shown on a graph of an action potential.

Oxygenated Blood

Blood that is rich in oxygen, typically found in the left side of the heart after returning from the lungs.

Deoxygenated Blood

Blood that is low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide, typically found in the right side of the heart as it returns from the body.

Threshold

The specific voltage level (e.g., $-40 \text{ mV}$) that a neuron must reach for a stimulus to produce an impulse or action potential.

Alveoli

The tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs via diffusion; oxygen moves from high concentration in the air to lower concentration in the capillaries.

Inhalation

The respiratory phase where the diaphragm contracts and moves down, while the rib cage expands, increasing lung volume.

Exhalation

The respiratory phase where the diaphragm relaxes and moves up, and the rib cage moves down and in, decreasing lung volume.

Semen

A fluid composed of sperm cells and secretions from various male reproductive glands.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

A double-stranded nucleic acid containing genetic instructions, characterized by a deoxyribose sugar and a double-helix structure.

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

A typically single-stranded nucleic acid involved in protein synthesis, containing a ribose sugar and the base Uracil instead of Thymine.

Hydroxide Ion ($OH^{-}$)

An ion released by bases that causes the $pH$ of a substance to increase (become more alkaline).

Biological Molecules

The four main categories of organic compounds found in living things: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Monomer

A small molecular subunit that serves as the building block for a larger polymer.

Saturated Fatty Acid

A lipid molecule where all carbon atoms are connected by single bonds, resulting in a straight chain usually solid at room temperature.

Unsaturated Fatty Acid

A lipid molecule containing one or more double bonds between carbon atoms, creating kinks in the chain.

Antiparallel

The arrangement in DNA where the two strands run in opposite directions alongside each other.

Complementary Base Pairing

The specific matching of nitrogenous bases in DNA ($A$ with $T$ and $C$ with $G$).

DNA Replication

The biological process of producing two identical replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule for cell division.

Sphincter

A circular muscle that normally maintains constriction of a natural body passage and relaxes as required by normal physiological functioning.

External Respiration

The exchange of gases between the atmosphere (alveoli) and the blood in the pulmonary capillaries.

Internal Respiration

The exchange of gases between the blood in systemic capillaries and the tissue cells.

Cellular Respiration

The metabolic process within the mitochondria where cells break down glucose to produce $ATP$ and carbon dioxide.

Hydrogen Bond ($x$)

The bond between water molecules that allows water to effectively cool the body through evaporation.

Codon

A sequence of three nucleotides in $mRNA$ that codes for a specific amino acid during translation.