Global systems and global governance case studies

Global flows

- capital - remittances

Remittances = global flow of money due to migrants sending money earned back to their home countries

- 40% Somalians rely on remittances for basic needs

- remittances make up 80% of all investment into Somalia

- country with an informal economy - little government regulation + lots of informal and illegal jobs

- remittances help debt repayment, business start up, economic growth as their is a lack of government funding for this

Global marketing

- examples

• coca cola

• kitkat

Global marketing = marketing of a product/service in the international market place

global marketeer - views the world as one single market - produce a product that fits different regional marketplaces

- develop a recognisable brand and one successful marketing strategy

- one global scale campaign = economies of scale - cost reduction

Coca-cola

- company has one single product - minor elements tweaked for different markets

- same formula for all markets, same recognisable design just different bottle/can sizes and languages

- sold in more than 180 countries

KitKat

- British company - became popular overseas - global marketeer

- Japan sells 100s unusual flavours - Cherry blossom, French Salt

- same logo used

glocalisation = altering business practices to cater to local interest/ tastes

eg. high Japanese demand for different kitkat flavours

Trade agreements as a factor of globalisation

- trade blocs/ free trade

- advantages/disadvantages

- OPECs/ ASEAN

- NAFTA

trade bloc = agreement between states, regions, countries to reduce barriers to trade - aim to stimulate economic development

free trade = international business not restrained by government regulation - no tax on imports/exports

EU advantages

- improved global security, developing economies and living standards of members

- common currency - simplify transactions eg. euro

- promote declining regions - EU investment into Eden project for a declining Cornish area

- support sectors of economy

- free movement of trade - powerful global trade bloc

- allows people looking for work to move between member countries

- pressure on food standards/ labelling - benefit consumers

EU disadvantages

- loss of financial control to central authority - European central bank

- economic sectors damaged by resource sharing - UK sharing fishing groups with France

- loss of individual countries influence on its own rules/regulations

- immigration debates - Eastern European migrants

UK left EU - 2020 - 51.8% in favour - control over immigration, economic growth, decisions about UK to be made in UK

OPECs = non-regional based trade agreement - between Middle East, Africa, South Am. - focus on global oil trade - stabilises global oil market

- keeps prices fair and stable for producers

- keeps oil output consistent and reliable for consumers

ASEAN = Asian free trade area, accelerates economic growth and social progress in smaller asian countries - Cambodia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Singapore etc.

NAFTA

NAFTA = North American free trade agreement

- established between Canada, Mexico and the US in 1994 - aims to boost employment/ growth - relieve Mexican debt from 1970s

- eliminated tariffs - 4x trade - lower food transport costs for exportation of agricultural produce

- cheaper oil importation for the US from Mexico - reduces Middle East reliance

- 5 million new US jobs

- 3x foreign investment - US businesses investing into Mexico/Canada

- outsourcing of textile, electrical and automotive manufacturing from California/NY > Mexico lost 500,000 US jobs

- Mexican farmers put out of business - cheaper US farm products could be imported in - local farmers can't compete with lower prices

Trump - 2017 - wanted to leave NAFTA - stop flow of Mexicans to the US and returns lost manufacturing jobs from outsourcing to the US

- 2020 - NAFTA ended - US - Mexico - Canada agreement

- more expensive for auto-motive companies to switch production

- more balanced reciprocal trade

Unequal flows of people within global systems (Qatar)

- promoting stability, growth, development

- creating inequality, conflict, injustice

Qatar -

90% migrant population - highest in the world

Migrant demand driven by hosting the 2022 Fifa Word Cup

$137B invested into the building programme - included 9 stadiums, high speed rail networks, airport improvements and 55,000 hotel rooms

- China Railway Construction Corporation built stadium (TNC)

- high influx of South Asian migrants due to job opportunities

flow promoting stability, growth, development

- worker influx allows for a construction boom - chance for Qatar to develop a non-hydrocarbon based industry

- increased tourism, visitor spending, broadcasting revenue

- 4% increase in GDP in 2022

- built infrastructure can support future sporting events- sustainable investment compared to fossil fuels (finite) - Asian football cup hosted in Qatar

- remittances sent back to origin countries of migrant workers

- new job opportunities with higher wages, chance to make a decent living/ support families

flow creating inequality, conflict, injustice

- Qatar put under scandal over work conditions - reduce tourism - BBC documentary "Built on Exploitation"

- mistreatment of workers from Nepal, India, Bangladesh 1,000 worker deaths between 2012-13

- migrant workers trapped due to passport/ID confiscation

- overcrowded accommodation, salaries withheld, forced labour

- loss of young skilled workforce from origin countries - lose their demographic dividend and their own chance to develop their economies and infrastructure

Transnational companies - unequal flows of ideas/technology/capital

- definition/ reasons

- spatial organisation

- Apple

- Shell oil

TNC = business that operates globally - across at least 2 different countries - high power influence in countries - jobs/economic contributions

- relocate headquarters to avoid taxes

- outsource production to areas with cheaper labour costs/ transport costs - closer to raw materials

- access wider consumer markets

Spatial organisation = spread of global operations around the world to maximise costs/efficiency - HQ, production, R/D in different countries

vertical - entire supply chain company operated

horizontal - diversify operations - expansion, mergers

Apple

- company headquarters - California- Apple Campus - utilising highly educated young workforce - skilled university graduates

- research centre - Silicon Valley - California keep main operations close - easy communication

- production - developing economies - unexploited resources, eg. Chilean copper

- manufacturing - cheap labour costs - skilled workers China holds 90% Apple production

- Shenzhen factory - 18 suicides 2017 highlights poor working conditions

- Apple = one of largest global taxpayers - 35B corporate income tax

- aid flow of technology - product distribution and wealth provision

Shell oil

+ves of globalisation - due to 24.7 online banking, improved communications, transport, spatial organisation TNC can invest abroad - benefits to invested in country

- employs 2500 Nigerians directly

- investment in Nigerian oil - allowed for natural resource to be collected

- responsible for 1970s oil boom kick start Nigerian economic development - aid DTM progression - NEE

- 2022 - Shell paid 1.36B in tax/royalties to Nigerian government

- inequalities - local communities devastated by oil spills - protests not heard - overruled by government demand for economic growth

- environmental damage of globalisation/TNC investment

Globalisation - promoting growth and stability/ inequality and injustice

- Coca Cola - TNC

benefits

- multiplier effect - initial investment stimulates more - Google in Kings Cross - attracts more TNCs and big companies

- creating jobs, employment, more local skills

- improve infrastructure - Shell oil in Nigeria

- increase political global stability - more interdependence and reliance between countries - try avoid conflict to protect supply chains

costs

- inequalities - global scale advantages - local stakeholders lose out

- environmental damage - increased production increases fossil fuel demand - long term not sustainable will bring costs

- labour exploitation in periphery countries

- capital generated returns to origin country - not fair profit repatriation

Coca- Cola - India

- world wide operations in more than 200 countries

- directly employs 7000 people in India - job opportunities, taxes to government, support local suppliers - economic growth key stakeholder

- 1B invested into country - aided social and environmental development initiatives - education/healthcare development

- 2014 - Varanasi plant - ordered Coca cola plant closure due to groundwater over abstraction/ pollution and failure to meet sustainable groundwater recharge initiatives

- pollutant levels over permissible limit

- local coconut groves abandoned - lack of water for irrigation, job loss, import reliance increases, food insecurity

- local injustices created

- company denied allegations - claimed lack of rainwater was responsible - plant didn't close

- Indian government supported locals - ordered closure but TNC power overrules government - powerful political influence - economic benefits outweigh environmental costs

Unequal power relations

China - growth

coastal regions developed at a faster rate than inland regions - aided national economic development but exacerbated regional inequality

population = 1.4B

Guangdong province - south east coast

- home of Shenzhen - apples main manufacturing factory - Special Economic Zones (SEZs) like Shenzhen have fewer growth restrictions - promote rapid development

- accounts for 25% China's international trade

- same population size as Mexico

- promotes economic growth and development - flow of workers rural - urban to work in factories - loss of demographic dividend/young skilled workforce in rural

joined WTO in 2001 - helped global trade and encourage FDI from TNCs - subcontracted work has to be done by chinese firms - keeps employment rates high, prevents profit repatriation

State owned enterprises (SOEs) - attract TNCs

westernisation of profits, patents, technological advances - allow China to leapfrog developmental stages

infrastructure improvements - ports, railways, air - built for trade and industry, helped exports of products from coastal east china but dont improve regional connections east-west

- 13,000 km of high-speed-railway (HSR) lines built between 2008 and 2013

Unequal power relations

- China - inequality

- Gini Index

- Hukuo system

- Internet censorship

bottom 50% China's population earn only 15% total national income

Gini Index - measures inequality

1 = entire country income held by one person

0 = complete equal division

China's Gini score increased 35% ^ in the last 20 years - 0.47 in 2021 - shows worsening inequality - increasing rural/urban gap

cant have growth without inequality though?

government aims since 2004

- increase minimum wage for workers

- tax cuts for rural workers

- force the movement of industry urban - rural : challenge due to lack of accessibility/transport/skilled workers

Hukuo system

household registration system - internal passport document - can only obtain social benefits in region of origin

- shapes socio-economic divide in China between rural-urban

- internal migrants not entitled to welfare benefits

- 140M internal migrants in China/year

rural migrants suffer in comparison - unless they gain wealth and can afford urban hukou/ to privately pay for services they have to return to their hometowns for healthcare etc.

- children often stay in rural villages or have to enter migrant-run schools when parents go to work in urban areas

The internet and flows of ideas

- Chinese market opened up to foreign investment - but government want to suppress movements that threaten their power through internet censorship - freedom of speech/ flow of information restricted

The Great Firewall - worlds largest censorship system - blocks Facebook, Google, Instagram - tight governmental control

power geometry created by globalisation - limits freedom of speech - difference between government with controlling power and chinese citizens on the receiving end of enforced restrictions

We chat - chinese messaging app - 900M users - all private conversations can be routinely monitored -

Unequal power relations

- time space compression

- Doreen Masey theories

- geopolitics

time space compression = idea of a "shrinking world" due to technological and transport improvements reducing relative distances between places - eg. zoom calls/aviation allows you to rapidly cross world

Doreen Masey

- time space compression creates unequal power relations - allows some groups to gain control/power and have superiority over others

- different social groups impacted differently by unequal distribution

- control over movement increases power - TNCs/ HDEs

globalisation creates a power geometry - some groups initiate flows and movements (have influence and power) eg. Qatar, TNCs - Apple, Coca cola

other groups are on the receiving end/imprisoned by power geometry - migrant workers, Shenzhen factory suicides, locals in Varanasi

Geopolitics

- increasing globalisation increases global political stability - unites countries towards common goals

- increased economic independence/integration decreasing likelihood of armed conflict

- trade blocs - used as a weapon in conflict - blocs on Russia following Ukrainian invasion - decrease political power/integration

Dell theory "No two countries that are both part of the same global supply chain, like Dell’s, will ever fight a war against each"

Global features and trends in international trade/ investment

- influential factors

- World Trade Organization

trade patterns changing due to greater economy integration - growth of NEEs

China - largest share of global trade - trans-pacific trade now growing faster than trans-atlantic - (ASEAN)

influential factors

demographic - dividends in NEEs - demand for cars, mobile phones - ageing populations in HDEs - transport, health care

migration - educated migrant networks promote trade - reduce language barriers/ create business relationships, demand for goods and service from origin country

infrastructure - doubling number of airports in a country can boost trade by 13-14%

R+D into methods to decrease trade costs

transport - landlocked countries experience on average 40% less trade volume

- innovation - jet engines to reduce airfreight costs, containerisation

- variations in China east/west trade/ development

politics - trade blocs, borders can increase tariffs and customs delays

- political disputes reduce volume of inter country trade

Russia - most internationally sanctioned country globally - following Ukrainian invasion 2022 - oil/coal

World Trade Organization - 1995

- 166 members - creates safe arena for global trade - allows disputes to be resolved without conflicts

- lowers barriers eg. tariffs, quotas for members - promote economic growth - market access

- strict trading rules not favourable to NEEs

- inequality/injustice: LDE/NEE without sufficient resources to trade can't access markets - hard to establish growth

8% increase in world trade as a % of GDP since 1995

Trans-pacific partnership - Obama - 12 nations

- biggest multinational trade deal in 20 years

- 98% tariffs eliminated on wide product range - low end eg. dairy, beef, sugar, rice

- market access for key low end goods exporters - NEEs - 10% Vietnamese GDP rise by 2025

trade blocs - unfair - deny non members access - barriers to LDE growth

Differential access to markets

- special and differential treatment agreements (SDTs)

Special and differential treatment agreements (SDTs)

- tariffs/quotas exclude developing nations from free trade

- STDs allow faster growth in LDCs (least developed countries) through removing inequalities of international trade - help tackle vulnerability/ lack of fair access

developing countries should have access to markets of developed countries

EU everything but arms agreement - 2001

all products from LDCs apart from weapons are duty reduced/ quota free

US duty free treatment - 2000

2000 products from African countries not affected by protectionist policies (tariffs)

critical - HDE economies undermined by flow of cheaper non-tariffed goods? - not all LDCs in WTO - barrier to trade? - unfair for developed nations, they lose out to benefit LDCs?

Cambodian + EBA

Cambodia = 5th largest supplier of garments to the EU

- growth into EU market aided by EBA agreement - garments entering are duty free (SDT agreement)

Cambodian economic development (14% garment export growth in 2016) causing country to lose LDC status - stops preferential treatment

- aim is that economy will be developed enough to not be reliant on EBA scheme

- being out competed by Vietnam/ EU free trade agreement - reducing import tariffs from 12% > 0 - Cambodia needs to stay competitive: market expansion, higher value products, easier shipping

critical of EBA:

- abuse of system/ internal corruption

Chinese source bikes exported to Europe via Cambodia - decrease/avoid bike taxes/tariffs

- EBA set up to help Cambodia/LDC s integrate to global market - not to benefit trade super giant China

48.5% import duties put on Cambodian bicycles in response - harms companies exporting legitimately

World trade in one food commodity

- bananas

Bananas

5th most traded agricultural produce - staple food for 400M

- key producers: hot tropics, Latin America, Caribbean, Africa

environmental impacts:

disease susceptible crop: agrochemical treatment - fungicides, herbicides, insecticides in production

- with exception of cotton: banana industry = largest agrochemical input into environment - link to crop spraying in Punjab + cancer deaths from run off/water infiltration

- deforestation for plantations - loss of biodiversity/soil fertility

trade patterns =

- developing export to developed

ACP group - Africa, Caribbean, Pacific

Large US TNCs (Chiquita, Dole) - own/run plantations in Latin America

Ecuador = main exporter - 5M tonnes/year

USA = main importer - 3M tonnes/year

- although production occurs in NEEs - 90% consumer paid price stays in richer "north" - unfair profit repatriation means inequality created - producers unable to benefit

4 key US TNCs used to dominate 80% banana trade - own distribution networks/ profit repatriation

- market share fallen to 45% - direct supply chains established to supermarket retailers

Trade Wars

Lomé convention - 1975 - special differential treatment given to 71 APCs - African, Caribbean, Pacific countries - tax free import quotas

- allows development without overseas aid needed - protect smaller run family farms from cheap Latin American bananas (TNC produced - technology - economies of scale )

- US TNCs lose out - SDT bananas cheaply flood market - low costs out compete - relocating plantations to West Africa

race to the bottom = aim to undercut competitors pricing through lower working conditions/standards/ reduced labour costs

Geneva banana agreement - 2012 - gradually reduces Latin American banana taxes - concerns that ACP producers can't compete

Fair trade and ethical investment

impact of global systems on me

Fair trade

- NGO - social movement to help producers in developing countries achieve better trading conditions, salaries - sustainable

- advocate for higher wages for producers

- 1 in 3 UK bananas = fairtrade

- growth of "sustainable " bananas - educated consumers in HDEs willing to pay higher prices - help small scale producers

- growing sustainable market - slow growth, only in HDEs - not affordable as a student?

ethical investment

- consumer conscious choices - investment into socially responsible choices

global systems impact on me

- globally accessible products - fast fashion - shein - containerisation - choice to shop more ethically with vinted?

- ability to travel - cheap airflight

- NHS appointment times - Brexit loss of workers

- geopolitics - rise of fuel prices due to trade bloc sanctions on Russian oil

- spread of culture - technology and social media

- Nottinghill carnival due to flow of people

International Agencies - do they work to promote growth and stability or exacerbate inequality and injustice

- World Bank

- IMF

World Bank - 1944

aims to fight poverty through financial assistance to developing countries

- long term development and poverty reduction

- provided over $365B since set up

- aid socio-economic development in LDE/NEEs - provide loans for building schools, hospitals,

- develop and environment for sustainable growth and investment - even playing field

- Bangladesh - rural water supply and sanitation project provided 1.2M access to improved water sources

criticisms

- too much focus on GDP and not living standards - encourage TNC investment - power geometry - local stakeholders lose out

- Malthus limits to growth model - cant support growth without environmental degradation

- focus on western practises - homogenisation of culture and loss of individual place identities

- Malawi introduced pre-paid water meters for sustainable water supply to prevent cholera/typhoid from polluted water

- high water prices mean families cant afford food/school fees - girls pulled out of school to help water collection - no point in water meter if people can't afford the water

International Monetary Fund

oversees global finance system - stabilises

186 members

- provides loans to countries to help debt repayment - allows economic recovery in countries in crisis - time to restore stability

- last resort - prevent bankruptcy

success

2002 Brazil received IMF loans - paid off its debt 2 years ahead of schedule

- stabilise economy - financial recovery

criticisms

- lack of concern for democracy, human rights, labour rights - not prioritising social development

- 53B invested into Brazil since 1958 - not aided sustainable growth - 30% still in poverty

- loaned countries see increase unemployment/unequal income distribution

- loan condition decreases government spend on social programmes lack of education harms future economy

International Agencies - do they work to promote growth and stability or exacerbate inequality and injustice

- UN

United Nations - 1954 (came out of WW2) - 193 members

intergovernmental organisation - promotes international cooperation, peace/security, human rights, socio-economic development, environmental protection

growth and stability on a global scale =

- peacekeeping forces sent to regions after armed conflict - maintain peace

- develop and strengthen international relations - Security Council - no further world conflicts after WW2

- UN development programme - technical grants and loans in over 170 countries

- WHO - eradicated small pox 1980 - global work - "Roll back malaria"

- publish HDI - compare country development - life expectancy, education, poverty etc.

- reduced developing country debt to help reach MDGs

- World food programme - reducing PHFL in Burkina Faso - reduce food insecurity

established millennium development goals 2000 - but not achieved by 2015 so reformed as sustainable development goals - 15 goals - higher focus on climate/environment protection

met target of halving the proportion of people living on less than $1.25 a day by 2015

- most East-Asian countries achieved extreme poverty target

inequality and injustice =

- hard to assess global progress of MDGs eg. Brazil met or surpassed all target but Benin failed almost all - global inequality

- 2/3 global progress in poverty in China - overall global scale effort in reducing poverty not a success

- failure of WHO response to Ebola

- globalisation unites nations/ promotes TNCs - increases power geometry

- population still increasing + climate change > need to develop more help for food - carrying capacity - making progress towards goals but problems exacerbating still

criticism of MDGs - although 1.25£ poverty target met - doesn't take into account inflation - people may be just as poor as before - UN not actually made global progress

Antarctica

- physical geography

- climate

- convergence zone

- vulnerability

- threat of climate change

Antarctica

only continent without human indigenous population - part of a long standing territorial dispute

- no permanant residents

East antarctic sheet > stable than West antarctic sheet

- cooler

physical geography

- 98% ice covered

- thick ice sheets up to 4km - accumulation of snow + frost > ablasion over years

climate

- coldest, windiest, driest continent = "polar desert "

- average temperature -49oC

- warmer sea temps - support diverse marine ecosystem

- Western coastal peninsula - microclimate - summer melting

Antarctic convergence

- marine belt encircling Antarctica

- cold north flowing currents sink below warmer south flowing water

- natural boundary separating hydrological regions

- helps biodiversity + regulation of global oceanic circulation

why protect?

- would cause 60m global SLR if fully melted

- ices high albedo value reflects suns rays - maintain earths temperature - life supported

- 4km thick ice sheet - records earths climate history

- cold salt water drives currents

- special scientific importance

- habitat to niche species/ biodiversity

threat of climate change =

- East Antarctica Ice sheet - stable and not threatened due to extreme cold - global temperature increase wont cause melting/ sea level rise for many centuries

- West Antarctica ice sheet - unstable - ice below sea level and therefore thinned by global SLR

Antarctic Peninsula (AP) - one of most rapidly warming places in the world

- 3oC temperature increase in last 50 years

- 90% AP glaciers retreated since first measured - changing distribution of penguin colonies

- reduced sea ice cover = long time decline in abundance of Antarctic Krill - knock on impact on ecosystems/ food chains reliant on krill

Threats to Antarctica

- fishing and whaling

- mineral resource searching

Fishing and Whaling

Antarctic Krill - most fished creature

2013 - 200,000 tonnes krill fished from Antarctica

- undermines whole ecosystem/ threatens food chain - krill provide a primary food source for whales, seals

- fishing in Antarctica hard to regulate and monitor due to ocean expanse

Blue and white whale fishing - targeted for products of oil and whale bone - highly profitable industry

- exploiting Southern ocean due to over exploitation of North Atlantic

- if allowed to continue - global scale resource depletion - not sustainable

International Whaling Commision (iWC)

- 88 members - global body

- Southern Whale Sanctuary prohibits all commerical whaling within 50 mill sq km around Antarctica

critical = whaling allowed for scientific research - exploited by Japan for profit - illegal, unregulated/reported

Minerals

Rich resource base - oil, coal, metals - copper and gold found along Antarctic Peninsula

So far.. Antarctic treaty 1956 = strong success - never been mining in Antarctica - banned under environmental protocol

critical = treaty under review in 2048 - may open up Antarctica's vulnerability to mineral exploitation due to increased global resource depletion/ demand

potential impacts:

- climate change/ ice loss may expose land for accessible drilling - economically viable

- habitat destruction from new infrastructure

- pollutants contaminating land/water

- oil spills - long term impact -oil remains in environment

- use of fossil fuels contributes to global warming - exacerbates impacts on Antarctica

Threats to Antarctica

- tourism

- scientific research

Tourism

Antarctica is a global common not owned by anyone - tourism not prevented but it must be followed in line with Antarctica treaty regulations

- cruises around Peninsula - wildlife, views , hiking, boat tours

100,000 tourists > 2022-23

- warmer climate extends season

- easier accessibility - reinforced ships/travel improvements

threats

regional : environmental degradation

- change to penguin species reproductive/ social behaviours, vegetation trampled

- invasive species introduction (insects on clothes) harm biodiversity/ can out compete native species

global : high carbon footprint

- average tourist trip = 5.44T CO2 per passenger - accelerates ice sheet melt and global SLR

critical =

- tourism - expensive - tourists more affluent and educated on minimising impact

- tourism heavily guideline regulated - prevents carrying capacities exceeded/ limits on visitor numbers

- climate change highlighted to tourists - encourages support and investment into protection

Scientific Research

70 permanent research stations

- ice and soil hold more than a million years of data about past climates

- Antarctic science led to discovery of ozone hole 1985

- least human contaminated environment globally - study wildlife

threats

- chemical contamination of environment (release of toxic HBCD used in insulation/ building materials)

- disrupts metabolic development in rodents - unknown effect on penguins - deterioration prevented by cold

native species isolated last 15-30M years

Antarctica - 1500 global port links

"biofouling" mussels/ barnacles attach to ship hulls - non-native and threaten ecosystem stability

critical = waste treatment plant built on Australia Davis station - 1.5M

- drinking quality water from waste - minimal marine impact when discharged

- developed "biosecurity measures" eg. cleaning ship hulls

Governing Antarctica

- International Whaling Commission - IWC

- International Whaling Moratorium - IWM

- Antarctic Treaty

mitigation = human intervention to eliminate/reduce risks and impacts of a process

International Whaling Commission - 1946

- international government organisation

- responsible for whale stock conservation

- monitors populations - capture limits globally

success = designated specific whale sanctuary area eg. Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary surrounding and banning all whaling around Antarctica

- legislation prohibits activity

critical = Japan disregard sanctuary and hunt whales under the disguise of "scientific research"

- legislation loophole exploited

- 3600 whales killed by Japan since 2005 - unsuccessful protection - hard to enforce sanctuary area - illegal whaling

International Whaling Moratorium - imposed by IWC

pause in all international commercial whaling declared in 1986 with the exception of "aboriginal subsistence whaling"

- still evaded by Japan under false pretexts and "special permits"

Antarctic Treaty - 1959

outstanding example of international cooperation - in place over 50 years

- aims to avoid disagreements and conflicts, establish development limits and resolve ownership/mining right conflicts

success =

- military activities, nuclear explosions/ radioactive waste disposal all prohibited

- allows freedom for scientific investigation

- all ships/ stations have to be open to investigation - regulate activity

- no mining taken place on Antarctica despite resource base

critical =

- treaty up for review 2048 - future threats if current regulations overthrown

- no legal penalties for violating agreements

- need collaboration from all countries involved on decisions

Governing Antarctica

- Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty PEPAT

- Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources CAMLR

Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty

1991

- protects Antarctica for scientific/aesthetic value

- prohibits all mining

key clauses

- prohibits non-native species introduction/ removal of flora and fauna

- established waste disposal and storage rules

- restricts discharge of oil/garbage in Antarctic treaty area

- environmental assessments on tourism

inspections/enforcement

- observers designated at Antarctic treaty council meetings carry out inspections

- all parties in Antarctica must cooperate fully with inspections

- observers get full access to shops, stations, equipment

- allows research monitoring - ensure treaty/ protocols not breached

critical = also open for review in 2048

Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources CAMLR

- established to protect marine life from over exploitation

- produced in response to increasing commercial interest in Krill for fish meal/fish oil

success=

- challenges illegal, unreported fishing

- established first marine protected area in Southern ocean - 94000km2

- reduced seabird mortality to almost 0 in regulated fisheries

role of NGOs in monitoring threats/enhancing Antarctica's protection

- Antarctic and South Ocean coalition - ASOC

- Scientific committee on Antarctic Research - SCAR

- Greenpeace

Antarctic and South Ocean coalition - ASOC

- only NGO working full time to preserve Antarctica - lobbys for environmental protection

- coalition of 30 different NGOs eg. WWF, Friends of Earth

success =

- helped formulate discussions over signing of PEPAT - Antarctica designated a "nature reserve, devoted to peace and science "

- granted observer status in ATS - attends annual meetings - non political influenced stakeholder

- strengthen Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary

- helped establish Ross Sea Marine protected area - but alongside CCAMLR

drawbacks =

- less political influence - mainly help manage governance systems already implemented by IWC/ AT etc.

- less involved in AT discussions - observer status

Scientific committee on Antarctic Research - SCAR

- develop/ coordinate research in Antarctica

Greenpeace

1987 - moored in Antarctica - opened "World Park Base" a non-governmental research station - allowed to have a voice at the Antarctic Treaty table if you have a permanent base

- argument of Antarctica should remain a global commons not belonging to anyone - challenges territorial claims

success

- monitored pollution at other bases - hold nations accountable

- 15 protesters prevented French building an airstrip that would impact nesting penguin habitats - airstrip violated AT - workers blocked site until French abandoned plans

- respected player in negotiations

- people power able to overcome commercial interest

- 1991 - 50 year minimum prohibition on all mineral exploitation - lobbied for by Green peace