PYB203 Developmental Psychology

Nature vs. Nurture

• The debate over whether development is driven by biological/genetic factors or environmental influences and learning.

• Nature - having a genetic predisposition to a family history of depression makes you more vulnerable to getting depressed.

• Nurture - experiencing environmental stressors such as grief or trauma can trigger the genetic predisposition to depression

Continuity vs. Discontinuity

• The debate over whether change happens gradually in a linear fashion (e.g., height) or in distinct, stage-like steps (e.g., puberty).

• Continuity - a child gradually grows each day; they do not just suddenly grow 5cm taller

• Discontinuity - Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, children’s thinking shifts fundamentally at specific stages, not gradually

Activity vs. Passivity

• The debate over whether individuals are active agents who create their own development or passive recipients of environmental events.

• Activity - child sees a toy they want to play with, they move the thing blocking the toy instead of waiting for someone to do it for them

• Passivity - a child responding to involuntary, unlearned reflexes, sucking a bottle when it comes near their mouth

Universality vs. Specificity

• Whether developmental patterns are applicable to all humans (e.g., brain restructuring) or specific to cultural and individual contexts.

• Universality - a child’s brain undergoing restructuring and pruning is a biological process which cannot be changed

• Specificity - becoming a parent, it does not happen to everyone and is driven by individual choice

Id (bottom of iceberg)

The unconscious part of the personality driven by the pleasure principle and impulsive desires.

Ego (top of iceberg)

The rational negotiator that problem-solves between the impulsive id and the moral superego to find realistic solutions.

Superego (middle of iceberg)

The moral component of personality that acts as a conscience, focusing on right, wrong, and societal standards.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Erikson's 1st stage (0–1 yr); infants learn whether or not they can rely on caregivers to meet basic needs.

Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt

Erikson's 2nd stage (1–3 yrs); toddlers realize they are separate individuals and attempt to assert independence.

Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's 4th stage (6–12 yrs); the focus shifts to mastering academic and social skills to build competence.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Erikson's 5th stage (12–20 yrs); the key adolescent task of experimenting with and consolidating a stable sense of self.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Erikson's 6th stage (20–35 yrs); young adults seek to form deep, committed partnerships.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Erikson's 7th stage (35–65 yrs); the striving to be needed and to leave a legacy for future generations.

Integrity vs. Despair

Erikson's 8th stage (65+ yrs); a retrospective search for meaning and acceptance of one's life.

Positive Reinforcement

Increasing a behavior by delivering a desired stimulus (e.g., a reward).

• infant says “cookie”, mother gives praise

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing a behavior by removing an aversive or unpleasant stimulus.

• child cleans messy room —> parent stops nagging them

Positive Punishment

Decreasing a behavior by adding an aversive stimulus (e.g., adding a chore).

• toddler throws a toy —> father yells “stop it!”

Negative Punishment

Decreasing a behavior by removing a desired stimulus (e.g., taking away phone time).

• teenager out past curfew —> parents ground teenager

Microsystem

Bronfenbrenner’s layer of immediate, proximal influences the individual interacts with daily (e.g., family, school, peers).

Exosystem

Bronfenbrenner’s layer of settings that impact an individual indirectly (e.g., a parent’s workplace or local government).

Macrosystem

Bronfenbrenner’s layer containing broad cultural ideologies, societal narratives, and laws.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

• Vygotsky’s concept of the gap between what a learner can do alone and what they can do with guidance.

• Can do alone sphere - skills an individual has mastered

• ZPD - task is just beyond the persons current independent ability but can be achieved with the right support e.g. parent or teacher

• Cannot do sphere - tasks the individual cannot perform yet even with guidance

Survival Reflexes

Adaptive, permanent, or semi-permanent behaviors present at birth like breathing, blinking, and sucking

Primitive Reflexes

Inborn behaviors that typically disappear in the first year, such as the Moro (startle) and Babinski (toe fanning) reflexes.

Sensory-Motor Stage

Piaget’s 1st stage (0-2yrs); infants understand the world through their sense and physical actions.

Object Permanence

The cognitive understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are hidden from view.

Cross-sectional Design

A research method that studies different age groups at a single point in time to examine differences

Longitudinal Design

A research method that follows the same group of participants multiple times over an extended period.

Cross-sequential Design

A research method combining cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches by tracking multiple age cohorts over time.

Pre-operational Stage

Piaget’s 2ns stage (2-7yrs); characterised by symbolic thought but limited by egocentrism and a lack of logical operations.

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget’s 3rd stage (7–11 yrs); children can perform mental actions (operations) on concrete, physical objects.

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget’s 4th stage (11+ yrs); the ability to perform mental actions on abstract ideas and engage in scientific hypothesis testing.

Centration

A cognitive limitation where a child focuses on only one perceptually salient aspect of a problem (e.g., the height of a glass).

Irreversible Thought

The inability to mentally undo an action or transformation.

Static Thought

Focusing on the end state of a process rather than the transformation itself.

Gray Matter

Brain tissue consisting of cell bodies and dendrites; its development follows an inverted-U pattern representing maturation through pruning

White Matter

Myelinated axons that increase linearly through childhood and adolescence to improve the speed of neural communication.

Inhibitory Control

An executive function involving the ability to block irrelevant thoughts, distractions, or inappropriate behavioral responses.

Theory of Mind

The capacity to understand that others have mental states (beliefs, intentions) different from one's own.

Secure Attachment (Child)

The child uses the parent as a secure base, is distressed by separation, and is quickly soothed upon reunion.

Avoidant Attachment (Child)

The child appears indifferent to separation and ignores or avoids the parent upon return (deactivating strategy).

Ambivalent Attachment (Child)

The child is extremely distressed by separation but is unable to be soothed upon return, showing a push-pull pattern (hyperactivating strategy)

Disorganized Attachment (Child)

Characterized by inconsistent, chaotic behavior; the child lacks a reliable strategy to get needs met.

Internal Working Model (IWM)

A cognitive and affective map of self and others that acts as a filter for processing relational information.

Autonomous (Adult Attachment)

The adult equivalent of secure attachment; characterized by coherence and reflective functioning.

Dismissing (Adult Attachment)

The adult equivalent of avoidant; adults minimize the importance of relationships and their own emotions.

Preoccupied (Adult Attachment)

The adult equivalent of ambivalent; adults are overwhelmed by emotions and demand high levels of closeness.

Fearful/Unresolved (Adult Attachment)

The adult equivalent of disorganized; often linked to trauma or complicated grief.

Authoritative Parenting

Parents who are high in both demandingness (boundaries) and responsiveness (warmth); results in the best child outcomes.

Authoritarian Parenting

Parents who are high in demandingness but low in responsiveness; they are strict, cold, and rely on power.

Permissive Parenting

Parents who are high in responsiveness but low in demandingness; they are warm but fail to set or enforce boundaries.

Uninvolved Parenting

Parents who are low in both dimensions; they are indifferent, distracted, or overwhelmed.

Popular (Peer Status)

Children who receive many "liked" and few "disliked" nominations; they have high social competence and regulated emotions.

Rejected (Peer Status)

Children who receive many "disliked" nominations; subtypes include antisocial (aggressive) and withdrawn (isolated).

Controversial (Peer Status)

Children who receive many of both "liked" and "disliked" nominations; often leaders who are also bullies.

Consummate Love

Sternberg’s "gold standard" of love, involving high levels of Passion, Intimacy, and Commitment.

Primary Aging

Universal and inevitable physical and cognitive changes common to everyone as they age (e.g., slower processing).

Secondary Aging

Aging effects caused by disease, illness, or atypical development (e.g., dementia or depression).

Crystallized Intelligence

Knowledge and skills gained through experience and education; remains stable well into old age.

Fluid Intelligence

Cognitive abilities like processing speed and short-term memory; these show predictable declines in older adulthood.

Initiative vs Guilt

Erikson’s 3rd stage (3-6yrs); children test limits and practice self-assertion in their environment.

Maturation vs. Experience

• Explores whether change is driven by an internal biological clock or by external interactions

• Maturation - infant reflexes such as the Babinski reflex exist because of biological maturation rather than being taught

• Experience - the visual cliff experiment showing that while depth perception has an innate component, the majority of its development is driven by experience

Order of Erikson’s psychosocial development

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (birth-1 year)

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years)

3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years)

4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years)

5. Identity vs. Role confusion (12-19 years)

6. Intimacy vs. isolation (19-25 years)

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (25-50 years)

8. Ego integrity vs. Despair (50 and older)

Behaviourism

• Proposes that human development is purely shaped by the environment and learning rather than internal biological factors

• E.g. Classical conditioning (Pavlov) and Operant conditioning (Skinner)

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

• Children learn not just through direct conditioning but also through modelling and observing others

• E.g. Bobo doll experiment - children who observed an adult act aggressive copied their behaviour

Vygotsky’s theory of development

Social interaction and language are the primary drivers of cognitive development

Scaffolding

• Process used to help a learner move through their ZPD

• Involves a more knowledgable other (parent or teacher) providing guidance and instruction to help master the new skill

Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems Theory

• Views development as a process of reciprocal, patterned interactions between the individual and their physical and social environment

• Bronfenbrenner's bioecological systems theory proposed four interacting and overlapping contextual levels:

  • Microsystem - face to face interactions

  • Mesosystems - connections between microsystems

  • Exosystem - indirect influences 

  • Macrosystem - general aspects of society

  • Chronosystem - encompasses time and the critical life and historical events that also influence development

Infant survival reflexes

• Breathing

• Eye-blinking

• Pupillary = constriction of pupils to bright light, dilation to dark surroundings

• Rooting = turning cheek towards breasts

• Sucking

• Swallowing

Infant primitive reflexes

• Babinski = fanning and curling toes when bottom of foot is stroked

• Grasping = curling fingers around objects that touch the baby’s palm

• Moro = Loud noise or sudden change in position of baby’s head will cause baby to throw arms outward and then bring them back towards each other

• Swimming = infant immersed in water will display active movements of arms and legs and will involuntarily hold breath

• Stepping = infants held upright so that their feet touch a flat surface will step as if to walk

Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC)

• Nationally representative study following a birth and kindergarten cohort every two years to track development

• Found that resilience was higher among 16-17 year olds who had at least one good friend

• 1 in 10 14-15 year olds had sought help from a mental health professional

• Cross-sequential independent samples design

Gross and fine motor skills

• Gross = movement of large muscles e.g. legs, arm, torso

• Fine = movement of small muscles e.g. fingers and toes

Habituation

The process of learning to be bored with a stimulus following repeated presentations; researchers conclude an infant has habituated when they lose interest and start to look away

Preferential looking

A research method used to measure infant perception based on the finding that infants prefer complex scenes over dull ones; for example, they will look longer at a black-and-white grating than a uniform patch if they can distinguish the pattern.

Evoked potentials

A technique for assessing how an infant's brain responds to sensory stimulation by measuring its electrical conductivity through brain-scanning technology

Piaget’s infancy sensory motor substages

1. Reflex activity - The period where infants exercise and refine inborn reflexes, such as sucking to fit the shape of different objects

2. Primary circular reactions - Repetitive actions that are centred on the infant’s own body, such as sucking a thumb or blowing bubbles on their lips

3. Secondary circular reactions - Repetitive actions involving objects external to the infant’s body, such as repeatedly shaking a rattle to make noise

4. Coordination of secondary schemes - The combination of multiple actions to solve simple problems and achieve goals, such as moving an interfering object out of the way to reach a toy

5. Tertiary circular reactions - Active experimentation with new ways to solve problems or produce interesting outcomes, such as varying the way they splash bathwater to see the results

6. Beginning of thought - The emergence of mental representation and insight, where children can solve problems mentally and use symbols to stand for objects, such as visualising how a stick can move another object