Institutional Deck

Profile China's President.

TITLES: President, General Secretary of the CCP, Chair of the Central Military Commission. SELECTION: Elected by the NPC (not by public); in practice chosen by top CCP leaders behind closed doors. TERM: 5-year terms; 2-term limit ABOLISHED by the NPC in 2018. POWERS: Head of state, commander in chief, party leader, nominates the Premier, sets policy direction. CHECKS: Virtually none — the NPC rubber-stamps; no independent courts or opposition.

Profile China's Premier.

TITLE: Premier of the State Council. SELECTION: Nominated by the President, confirmed by the NPC. TERM: 5 years (traditionally limited to 2 terms by party norms). POWERS: Head of government; oversees the civil service, bureaucracy, and economic policy implementation. LIMITS: Subordinate to the President and the CCP Politburo Standing Committee.

Profile China's National People's Congress (NPC).

STRUCTURE: Unicameral, ~3,000 members. SELECTION: INDIRECTLY elected through tiered regional/local assemblies (not direct public election). TERM: 5 years. POWERS ON PAPER: Most powerful institution — elects President, confirms Premier, passes laws, amends constitution. REALITY: Meets only ~2 weeks/year; rubber-stamps CCP decisions. BETWEEN SESSIONS: The Standing Committee of the NPC handles legislative work, sets agenda, interprets the constitution.

Profile China's Politburo Standing Committee.

WHAT IT IS: Top body of the Chinese Communist Party — NOT a government institution per se, but the REAL center of power in China. MEMBERS: ~7 top CCP leaders including the President/General Secretary. SELECTION: Chosen internally by CCP elite; no public input. POWER: Effectively directs all major policy; the government institutions implement its decisions.

Profile China's judiciary.

SYSTEM: "Rule BY law" — courts serve the CCP rather than check it. JUDICIAL REVIEW: None in practice. APPOINTMENTS: Controlled by the CCP. STRUCTURE: Supreme People's Court at top; courts enforce party decisions and prosecute corruption (including via the National Supervisory Commission, created 2018). INDEPENDENCE: None — judges rule against the government only in minor citizen lawsuits without challenging party authority.

Profile Iran's Supreme Leader.

TITLE: Supreme Leader (Rahbar). ROLE: Head of state; enforces vilayat-e faqih (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist). QUALIFICATION: Must be a top-ranking Shi'a cleric. SELECTION: Appointed by the Assembly of Experts. TERM: 10 years (never removed — only 2 in Iran's history: Khomeini, then Khamenei). POWERS: Commander in chief; sets political agenda; appoints top ministers, half of the Guardian Council, the Expediency Council, the head of the judiciary, top military/intelligence/media officials; can approve or override presidential policy.

Profile Iran's President.

ROLE: Head of government. SELECTION: Directly elected by national popular vote; MAJORITARIAN — must win >50%, with a 2nd-round runoff between top two if no majority. TERM: 4 years, max 2 consecutive terms. QUALIFICATION: Must be Shi'a Muslim; candidates must be vetted by the Guardian Council. POWERS: Oversees the civil service, conducts foreign policy, proposes the budget, appoints cabinet (with Majles approval). LIMITS: Subordinate to the Supreme Leader on all major policy; can be removed by the Majles OR the Supreme Leader.

Profile Iran's Majles.

STRUCTURE: Unicameral, 290 seats. SELECTION: Directly elected in a mix of single-member and multi-member districts; majoritarian (runoffs possible). TERM: 4 years. RESERVED SEATS: A small number for recognized religious minorities (Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians — NOT Baha'is). POWERS: Approves legislation, oversees the budget, confirms presidential cabinet nominees, can impeach the president. LIMITS: All laws must pass the Guardian Council's Sharia review; no formal party structure — operates through loose alliances.

Profile Iran's Guardian Council.

COMPOSITION: 12 members — 6 clerics appointed directly by the Supreme Leader + 6 jurists nominated by the head of the judiciary (himself a Supreme Leader appointee) and approved by the Majles. POWERS: VETS all candidates for elected office (commonly blocks moderates/reformists); reviews all Majles legislation for compliance with Islam and the constitution. EFFECT: Major tool for restricting electoral competition.

Profile Iran's Assembly of Experts.

COMPOSITION: 88 clerics. SELECTION: DIRECTLY elected by the public every 8 years (candidates vetted by the Guardian Council). POWER: Appoints the Supreme Leader and theoretically supervises/can remove him — has never done so. SIGNIFICANCE: The only body with formal authority over the Supreme Leader.

Profile Iran's Expediency Council.

COMPOSITION: Appointed by the Supreme Leader. POWER: Advisory body that RESOLVES DISPUTES between the Majles and the Guardian Council when they deadlock on legislation. NOTE: Not an electoral or legislative body — purely a mediation/advisory function.

Profile Iran's judiciary.

SYSTEM: Based on Shari'a (Islamic) law; judges must be trained in Islamic jurisprudence. HEAD: Appointed by the Supreme Leader. STRUCTURE: Civil courts for routine matters; Revolutionary Courts for political/national-security cases. INDEPENDENCE: Constitution calls it "independent," but in practice courts prosecute dissidents and political opponents — rule BY law, not rule OF law.

Profile Mexico's President.

ROLE: Combined head of state AND head of government; commander in chief. SELECTION: Directly elected by national PLURALITY (no runoff) — can win with less than 50%. TERM: ONE 6-year term (the sexenio); NO reelection, ever. POWERS: Appoints cabinet (some positions need Senate confirmation), issues executive decrees, proposes legislation, conducts foreign policy. LIMITS: CANNOT be impeached — the constitution does not empower the legislature to remove the president.

Profile Mexico's Chamber of Deputies.

ROLE: Lower house of the Congress of the Union. SIZE: 500 members. SELECTION: MIXED — 300 in single-member districts (plurality) + 200 by proportional representation (party list). TERM: 3 years; 4-term limit (changed from strict one-term limit in 2015). GENDER QUOTA: Constitutional 50% gender parity requirement (2014). POWERS: Approves legislation, levies taxes, verifies election outcomes.

Profile Mexico's Senate.

ROLE: Upper house of the Congress of the Union. SIZE: 128 members. SELECTION: MIXED — 96 directly elected in 3-seat state constituencies (3 per state × 32 states) + 32 by proportional representation. TERM: 6 years; 2-term limit (changed from strict one-term limit in 2015). UNIQUE POWERS: Confirms presidential appointments to the Supreme Court, approves treaties, approves federal intervention in state matters.

Profile Mexico's judiciary.

SYSTEM: Civil law tradition; "in transition" toward greater independence. SUPREME COURT: Has judicial review. APPOINTMENTS: Justices nominated by the President, confirmed by the Senate. TERM: 15 years (non-renewable). TREND: Recent constitutional amendments have increased independence and effectiveness; courts have issued meaningful rulings limiting executive power.

Profile Mexico's IFE/INE.

NAME: Federal Electoral Institute (IFE), renamed National Electoral Institute (INE). ROLE: Independent commission that regulates elections. SIGNIFICANCE: Central to Mexico's democratization — reduces voter fraud, enforces gender quotas, and enabled competitive multi-party elections after decades of PRI dominance.

Profile Nigeria's President.

ROLE: Combined head of state AND head of government; commander in chief; chief executive. SELECTION: Directly elected — MUST WIN a national majority AND at least 25% of the vote in two-thirds of Nigeria's 36 states (reflects federalism). TERM: 4 years; 2-term limit. POWERS: Appoints cabinet (with Senate confirmation), issues executive decrees, conducts foreign policy, approves legislation. LIMITS: Can be impeached by the National Assembly (legislature rejected Obasanjo's attempt at a 3rd term in 2006).

Profile Nigeria's House of Representatives.

ROLE: Lower house of the National Assembly. SELECTION: Directly elected in SINGLE-MEMBER DISTRICTS (FPTP). SIZE: 360 members, allocated to states by population. TERM: 4 years (no strict term limit). POWERS: Approves legislation, oversees policy implementation, part of impeachment process.

Profile Nigeria's Senate.

ROLE: Upper house of the National Assembly. SELECTION: Directly elected — 3 senators per state × 36 states + 1 from FCT Abuja = 109. TERM: 4 years. UNIQUE POWERS: Confirms presidential appointments (cabinet, Supreme Court), approves treaties, primary impeachment role.

Profile Nigeria's judiciary.

SYSTEM: Common law (British colonial inheritance). SUPREME COURT: Has judicial review. APPOINTMENTS: Justices recommended by the National Judicial Council, appointed by the President, confirmed by the Senate. TREND: Regaining legitimacy and independence by reducing corruption. REGIONAL: Northern states can use Sharia courts for some matters under the 1999 federal system.

Profile Nigeria's INEC.

NAME: Independent National Electoral Commission. ROLE: Regulates elections, issues tamper-proof voter IDs, certifies results. SIGNIFICANCE: Enabled the 2015 peaceful transfer of power between parties (APC defeating PDP) — a key democratization milestone.

Profile Russia's President.

ROLE: Head of state; commander in chief. SELECTION: Directly elected; MAJORITARIAN — must win >50%, with a 2nd-round runoff between top two if no majority (Putin has always won in round one). TERM: 6 years (increased from 4 in 2012); 2 CONSECUTIVE-term limit (Putin circumvented by stepping aside 2008–2012 as PM under Medvedev). POWERS: Appoints top ministers and judges, oversees the "power ministries" (FSB, Foreign Intelligence), nominates the PM, conducts foreign policy, can dissolve the Duma under certain conditions, can call referenda. REMOVAL: Impeachment by the legislature (has never succeeded).

Profile Russia's Prime Minister.

ROLE: Head of government. SELECTION: Nominated by the President, CONFIRMED by the Duma. POWERS: Oversees the civil service and domestic policy implementation. LIMITS: Subordinate to the President on major decisions; can be dismissed by the President.

Profile Russia's State Duma.

ROLE: Lower (and stronger) chamber of the Federal Assembly. SIZE: 450 members. SELECTION: MIXED — 225 in single-member districts (FPTP) + 225 by proportional representation with a 5% threshold (threshold has fluctuated 5%→7%→5%). TERM: 5 years (increased from 4 in 2008). POWERS: Passes legislation, CONFIRMS the PM, approves the federal budget. CHECK: The President can dissolve the Duma if it repeatedly rejects his PM nominee.

Profile Russia's Federation Council.

ROLE: Upper (weaker) chamber of the Federal Assembly. SIZE: ~170 members, 2 per federal subject. SELECTION: APPOINTED — one by the regional governor, one by the regional legislature (not directly elected). UNIQUE POWERS: Approves deployment of troops abroad, approves treaties, confirms presidential judicial nominees, approves budget legislation.

Profile Russia's judiciary.

SYSTEM: Civil law; courts have judicial review on paper. APPOINTMENTS: Judges nominated by the President, confirmed by the Federation Council. INDEPENDENCE: Low — courts are used to target political opposition (Khodorkovsky, Navalny) and have not meaningfully limited executive or legislative authority.

Profile the UK's Monarch.

ROLE: Ceremonial head of state. SELECTION: Hereditary. TERM: For life (until death or abdication — no term limit). POWERS: Formally appoints the PM (always the leader of the Commons majority), gives Royal Assent to legislation (never refused in modern era), approves Lords appointments on PM's recommendation, opens Parliament. REALITY: Almost all powers are exercised on PM/cabinet advice — symbolic rather than substantive.

Profile the UK's Prime Minister.

ROLE: Head of government; de facto commander in chief; chief executive over the civil service. SELECTION: Formally appointed by the Monarch, but in practice is the leader of the party/coalition holding a majority in the House of Commons. TERM: No formal term limit; serves until losing party leadership, losing a vote of no confidence, or losing a general election. POWERS: Leads cabinet, sets legislative agenda, sets foreign policy, can request snap elections (needs supermajority support under the 2011 Fixed-term Parliaments Act — used 2017 and 2019).

Profile the UK's House of Commons.

ROLE: Elected lower (and dominant) chamber of Parliament. SIZE: 650 members (MPs). SELECTION: Directly elected in SINGLE-MEMBER DISTRICTS, first-past-the-post (plurality). TERM: 5-year fixed terms (since 2011), with snap elections possible via supermajority vote. POWERS: Passes legislation, selects the PM (by virtue of majority), can remove the PM via vote of no confidence, holds Question Time sessions. EFFECT: FPTP advantages the 2 major parties (Conservative, Labour) and hurts minor parties like the Lib Dems, while allowing regional parties (SNP) to win seats concentrated in one area.

Profile the UK's House of Lords.

ROLE: Unelected upper (weaker) chamber of Parliament. SELECTION: APPOINTED — approved by the Monarch on the recommendation of the PM and an independent appointments commission (includes life peers, some hereditary peers, bishops). TERM: Typically for life. POWERS: Reviews legislation, proposes amendments, can DELAY legislation (max 30 days on budget bills). LIMIT: CANNOT veto — Commons ultimately prevails.

Profile the UK's judiciary.

SYSTEM: Common law — judges interpret vague statutes to establish binding precedent. SUPREME COURT: Established only in 2009 (by an Act of Parliament); serves as the final court of appeals. JUDICIAL REVIEW: CAN review executive actions and regional (devolution) disputes, BUT CANNOT strike down Acts of Parliament (parliamentary sovereignty). INDEPENDENCE: Strong — judges are shielded from partisan influence and function as a meaningful check despite the absence of a written constitution.

How does the PM/Premier get their job — by country?

UK: leader of Commons majority, formally appointed by Monarch. Russia: nominated by President, confirmed by the Duma. China: nominated by President, confirmed by the NPC. (Mexico, Nigeria, Iran have no PM — the president serves as head of government.)

Who can be impeached / removed, and by whom?

UK: PM via Commons vote of no confidence (no formal "impeachment"); Monarch cannot be removed. Russia: President by legislature (has never succeeded). China: NPC can remove the President. Nigeria: National Assembly can impeach the President. Iran: President can be removed by the Majles OR the Supreme Leader; Supreme Leader theoretically by Assembly of Experts (never done). Mexico: the legislature CANNOT impeach the President.

Which institutions have genuine judicial review that limits the other branches?

Mexico's Supreme Court (improving), Nigeria's Supreme Court (improving), and the UK's Supreme Court (can review executive actions and devolution disputes, but NOT Acts of Parliament). Russia and Iran have judicial review on paper only. China has none.

Which executives have the formal power to DISSOLVE the legislature?

Russia's President (can dissolve the Duma under certain conditions). UK's PM (can request a snap election with Commons supermajority support). Others cannot.

Which legislatures have TERM LIMITS on individual members?

Mexico: Deputies 4 terms of 3 years, Senators 2 terms of 6 years (both increased from strict 1-term limits in 2015). Others generally have no strict member term limits.