Health 2

Hormonal contraception

Uses synthetic hormones to suppress ovulation and thicken cervical mucus.

Combined pill

Contains oestrogen + progesterone; prevents ovulation.

Progesterone‑only pill

Thickens cervical mucus; sometimes suppresses ovulation.

Implant

Long‑acting progesterone rod; prevents ovulation for 3 years.

Hormonal IUD

Releases progesterone; thickens mucus; reduces bleeding.

Copper IUD

Non‑hormonal; copper is toxic to sperm; prevents fertilisation.

Condoms

Barrier method; prevents sperm entry; protects against STIs.

Diaphragm

Barrier placed over cervix; used with spermicide.

Vasectomy

Permanent male sterilisation; cuts vas deferens.

Tubal ligation

Permanent female sterilisation; blocks fallopian tubes.

LARC

Long‑acting reversible contraception (IUDs, implant).

Dual protection

Using condoms + another method to prevent pregnancy + STIs.

Bacterial STIs

Chlamydia, gonorrhoea, syphilis; treatable with antibiotics.

Viral STIs

HIV, HPV, herpes, hepatitis B; not curable but manageable.

Parasitic STIs

Trichomoniasis, pubic lice.

Chlamydia

Often asymptomatic; causes discharge + pain; treated with antibiotics.

Gonorrhoea

Discharge + pelvic pain; antibiotic treatment.

Syphilis

Painless sore → rash → systemic disease.

HPV

Causes genital warts + cervical cancer; prevented by vaccine.

Herpes

Painful blisters; lifelong virus.

HIV

Attacks immune system; managed with antiretrovirals.

STI prevention

Condoms, vaccination, regular testing.

Menopause

12 months without a period; end of fertility.

Oestrogen drop

Main hormonal change causing symptoms.

FSH rise

Loss of negative feedback increases FSH.

Hot flushes

Caused by thermoregulation changes.

HRT

Hormone replacement therapy to reduce symptoms.

Progesterone in HRT

Required if uterus present to prevent endometrial cancer.

Vaccine mechanism

Introduces antigen → immune memory.

mRNA vaccine

Delivers mRNA instructions to make antigen.

Live attenuated vaccine

Weakened pathogen triggers strong immunity.

Inactivated vaccine

Killed pathogen; safe for immunocompromised.

Subunit vaccine

Contains only antigen fragments.

Toxoid vaccine

Inactivated toxins (e.g., tetanus).

Herd immunity

High vaccination reduces spread.

Screening test

Identifies risk; not diagnostic.

Diagnostic test

Confirms condition; often invasive.

NIPT

Non‑invasive prenatal test using maternal blood.

Amniocentesis

Diagnostic; samples amniotic fluid.

CVS

Chorionic villus sampling; early diagnostic test.

Carrier screening

Identifies recessive gene carriers.

Ethical issues

Autonomy, consent, psychological impact.

Autonomy

Respecting patient choice.

Beneficence

Acting for patient benefit.

Non‑maleficence

Avoiding harm.

Justice

Fair access to care.

Informed consent

Patient must understand risks + benefits.

Ethical dilemma

Conflict between principles.

Thalidomide

1950s drug causing birth defects.

Phocomelia

Limb shortening caused by thalidomide.

Anti‑angiogenic effect

Prevents blood vessel formation in embryo.

Regulatory impact

Led to strict drug safety laws.

Teratogen

Substance causing birth defects.

Alcohol in pregnancy

No safe amount; crosses placenta.

Smoking in pregnancy

Causes low birth weight + SIDS risk.

Opioids in pregnancy

Can cause neonatal abstinence syndrome.

Cocaine in pregnancy

Risk of placental abruption.

Marijuana in pregnancy

Associated with low birth weight.

FASD

Condition caused by prenatal alcohol exposure.

Facial features

Smooth philtrum, thin upper lip.

CNS effects

Memory, attention, learning issues.

Growth restriction

Low birth weight + slow development.

Cause

Alcohol crosses placenta and affects brain development.