bio 2 lab final

opisthokonta

Consists of animals, fungi and some closely related protist groups e.g. choanoflagelllates and nucleariidds.  

Choanoflagellates

aquatic, single-celled or colonial protists that represent the closest living single-celled relatives of animals (metazoans)

They have collar cells (Choanocytes) which are similar to those found in sponges, cnidarians and echinoderms.

fungi

-eukaryotic, multicellular absorptive heterotrophs (obtain energy from organic carbon by absorption)

-Fungal body

• Mostly hidden underground or inside host

• Consists of network of threads called hyphae

• Complete feeding network of hyphae network called mycelium

- includes zygomycota, ascomycota, basidiomycota, chytridiomyocta, mucoromycota, lichens, and mycorrhizae.

fruiting bodies

sexual reproductive structures of fungi and are usually the only part of the fungus that emerges from the substrate.

chytrids

thought to be the first fungi to evolve on earth

important for understanding evolutionary relationships

have flagellated gametes meaning their reproductive cells have a flagellum

have chitin in their cell walls, an important defining feature of the fungi

stolon hyphae

cover the horizontal surface of the host

rhizoid hyphae

penetrate the bread to absorb the nutrients

sporangiophores

sgtand upright to hold a sporangium at their tips

zygomycota

Reproductive structure: Zygosporangia → zygotes

• Example in class:

• Rhizopus stolonifera (bread molds)

ascomycota

• Reproductive structure: Asci → ascospores

Examples in class:

• Saccharomyces cervisiae (yeast used for baking and alcohol)

• Peziza sp.

• Sordaria fimicola

basidiomycota

• Reproductive structure: Basidia → basidispores

• Examples in class:

• Mushrooms

• Coprinus sp.

• Bracket/shelf fungus

basidia

gills of mushroom bear basidia, the sexual reproductive structures of the mushroom

rhizopus sexual and aseuxual structures

sexual = zygosporangium

asexual = sporangia

rhizopus sexual structure

rhizopus asexual structure

peziza fungus

basidiocarps

reproductive bodies of an extensive underground system of mycelia

includes the stipe, cap, annulus, and gills

• gills bear the basidia, the sexual reproductive structures of the mushroom

Mycorrhizae

symbiotic relationship between a fungus and a plant

• The plant give the fungus carbohydrates

• The fungus helps increase mineral and water absorption for the plant.

• About 90% of land plants have mycorrhizal fungi.

lichens

• Lichens: symbiotic relationship between multiple fungi, cyanobacteria or

green algae.

• The cortex and medulla layers are made of fungus.

• A layer of cyanobacteria or algae is encased by the fungal layers.

• Lichens are not moss!

Crustose lichens

flat and adhere tightly to the surface of rocks or tree bark.

Foliose lichens

more leaf-like, and their edges generally curl away from the substrate.

They are typically found growing on the trunks or branches of trees.

Fruticose lichens

have a more 3-dimensional, shrubby growth

Metazoa

Kingdom Anamalia

Eumetazoa

true tissues

Parazoa

no true tissues

sponges (porifera)

• Assymetrical and lack true tissues

• Have some specialized cells

sponge anatomy

• Choanocytes in the body wall to draw water through the Ostia.

• Food particles are trapped microvilli collars and picked up by Amoebocytes.

• Amoebocytes digest food and deliver nutrients to sponge.

• Water exits though the Osculum

Cnidarians and Ctenophora (formerly Radiata)

• Two germ layers (Ectoderm and Endoderm)

• Between the two layers is mesoglea

Cnidarians

• Radial Symmetry

• Nematocysts (stinging cells)

• Either a polyp or medusa life stage.

• Some go through both forms at different life stages.

-hydra, jellyfish, box jellies, coral, sea anemones

• Clade Hydrozoa

• Hydra, Obelia and Physalia sp.

• Clade Anthozoa

• Sea anemones and corals

• Clade Scyphozoa

• Preserved Cassiopeia sp

Ctenophorans

• Biradial Symmetry

• No nematocysts

• No life stage metamorphosis

- comb jellies

Lophotrochozoans and Ecdysozoans

are protostomes.

• When an embryo develops, the first opening that forms is called the blastopore.

• The blastopore will eventually develop into the digestive track.

• In Protostomes, the blastopore becomes the mouth

Know the anatomical structures used to classify Lophotrochozoans

Lophotrochozoans have either a:

- lophophore

• feeding apparatus

• Made of ciliated tentacles that surround a mouth

- trochophore

• larval stage

determinate cleavage

the type of tissue a cell will become is set early in development

indeterminate cleavage

early development cells can become many different types of tissues

Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)

• Bilaterally symmetrical organisms

• Possess a head region with sense organs (Cephalization)

• Incomplete gastrovascular cavity

• Only has one opening

• Basic central nervous system

• Hermaphroditic

• Possess both male and female reproductive organs

Immature proglottids

are closest to the scolex (head region).

Mature proglottids

contain male and female sex organs and are in the “middle” of the worm.

Gravid proglottids

are at the posterior end of the worm. They are filled with eggs and will eventually break off the worm so that embryos can be transferred to the host.

Syndermata-Formerly Phylum Rotifera (Rotifers)

Coronoa

• Ciliated structure that looks like a rotating wheel

• Used for movement and feeding

Mastax

• Muscular pharynx and jaws for chewing food particles

Have a complete digestive system.

Phylum Brachiopoda

• Have true body cavity

• Possess lophophores

• Used for feeding and respiration

• Resemble clams

• Clams do not have a lophophore

Phylum Annelida

• Characterized by a body form made of many segments.

Errantia – free living predators

• Sub-class of polychaete worms

Sedentaria – sedentary or slow-moving

includes Tube worms, earthworms, leeches

earthworm external anatomy

earthworm internal anatomy

Phylum Mollusca (snails, slugs, oysters, clams, octopuses, and squids)

• Body plan 3 main parts:

• Muscular foot: usually used for movement

• Visceral mass: contains most of the internal organs

• Mantle: drapes the visceral mass and secretes the shell (if one is present).

Phylum Mollusca - Class Polyplacophora

• Chitons

• Reduced head

• Dispersed sensory organs

• Strong foot, attaches them to rocks

Phylum Mollusca-Class Gastropoda

• Snails, slugs

• Very diverse!

• Marine, Freshwater and terrestrial forms

• Many have shells

• Exhibit torsion –the twisting of organs within a shell

Phylum Mollusca-Class Cephalopoda

• Active predators - Some members have demonstrated high levels of intelligence

• Head surrounded by tentacles that are a modification of the foot.

squid, octopus, etc

squid external anatomy

male squid internal anatomy

female squid internal anatomy

Siphon

The squid uses this structure to help push water over the gills, propel itself through the water, expel waste products and push ink out of the body.

Chromatophores

Specialized cells that allow the squid to change colors.

Ink Sac

Expels ink through the siphon

to deter predators

Pen

Vestigial internal shell made of chitin. It helps hold the squid's organs in place.

Class Bivalvia

•Clams, oysters, scallops

•Ecologically and commercially important

•Filter the water by capturing particles from water column and ingesting sediment

Ecdysozoans

Many perform ecdysis, which is the shedding or molting of skin.

shed their exoskeletons in order to grow.

• This process can also allow them to repair or regenerate damaged limbs.

Phylum Arthropoda (Insects, arachnids, crustaceans)

• Highly successful (3/4 of all described species fall into this group)

• Terrestrial and Aquatic species

• Ecologically and economically important.

includes Subphylum Trilobita, Subphylum Chelicerata, Subphylum Crustacea, Subphylum Hexapoda, Subphylum Myriapoda

Subphylum Trilobita

• Ancient arthropods that dominated the oceans over 500 million years ago.

• They are now extinct

• May have given rise to modern day chelicerates such as horseshoe crabs and arachnids.

Subphylum Chelicerata

• Chelicerates- Horseshoe crabs, arachnids, and pycnogonids (sea spiders)

• Chelicerae, a specialized pair of appendages used for feeding

• Their bodies consist of a cephlathorax and an abdomen

• A tail-like Telson may also be present (to steer or to flip over)

horseshoe crab

• Females are usually larger.

• In males, the first pair of walking legs is modified with little hooks that are used during

mating. The walking legs in the female all look the same.

Class Arachnida (Spiders, ticks, mites)

• Over 60,000 species of arachnids

• Have two body regions

• Cephalothorax, abdomen

• Eight legs

Subphylum Crustacea

• Shrimps, lobsters, crayfish, crabs, barnacles, isopods

• Two body segments

• Cephalothorax (often covered in a carapace)

• Abdomen

• Biramous Appendages

• Each leg has two joints

crayfish external anatomy

antennae used for touch and taste

mandibles are opposable mouth parts used for biting and chewing

first and second maxillae used for sorting and handling food

• Males usually have larger claws.

• Males are often brighter in color.

• Males have a pair of enlarged swimmerets.

crayfish internal anatomy

Gastric Mill

• Found inside the stomach

• Look like teeth

• Are used to grind food

Subphylum Hexapoda

• Numerous species, ecologically dominant

• Successful due to:

• Small size

• Ability to fly

• Protective exoskeleton

• Reproductive fecundity

• Metamorphic life stage development

includes Grasshoppers, Mosquitos, Horsefly, Butterfly

grasshopper anatomy

Class Chilopoda : Centipedes

• Active predators

• Kill prey by injecting them with venom

• Flattened body

• Single pair of legs per body segment

Class Diplopoda : Millipedes

• Detritivores – feed on rotting plant material

• Rounded body

• Two pairs of legs per body segment.

Phylum Nematoda

round worms

found in almost all habitats

Some round worms such as Ascaris lumbricoides are parasites that infect the intestinal tract of humans and other vertebrates.

Deuterostomes

Defined by:

• Embryological development

• Blastopore becomes anus in deuterostomes

• Blastopore becomes mouth in protostomes

• Bilateral Symmetry

• Endoskeleton

• Two major Phyla:

• Echinodermata

• Chordata

• Know the four characteristics that all chordates share

1. notochord- felxible cartilaginous rods that acts as a support structure

2. hollow dorsal nerve cord- always located on the dorsal side of the notochord

3. pharyngeal arches

4. muscular postanal tail

Know the four characteristics that all mammals share

1. mammary glands- milk producing glands found in females

2. hair

3. specialized teeth

4. enlarged skulls

Phylum Echinodermata

• Spiny skinned animals

• All echinoderms have complex water vascular systems which they use for locomotion and breathing

sea star, sea urchin, brittle star, sea cucumbers etc

• Know the generalized anatomy of the sea star

Be familiar with sea star cellular development

Sea star cellular development begins with fertilized eggs undergoing rapid cleavage to form a blastula, which then gastrulates to establish three germ layers (ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm)

Phylum Chordata

Three groups

1. Urochordata (tunicates)

2. Cephalochordata (lancelets)

3. Vertebrata (vertebrates)

Remember: All vertebrates are chordates but not all chordates are vertebrates!

Subphylum Urochordata

• Sea Squirts/ tunicates

• Larvae are free swimming

• Adult-asymetrical

• Have protective sheath called tunic

Subphylum Cephalocordata

• Lancelets

• Have a dorsal nerve cord, notochord, gill slits,

tail.

• Do not have jaws, sense organs, paired fins, a heart, or well developed brain.

• Can swim but prefer to stay buried in the sand.

Subphylum Vertebrata (craniata)

• Have all the features of Chordates plus:

• Cranium

• Vertebral Column

Class Cyclostomata

lampreys and hagfish

without jaws

Class Chondrichthyes

• Sharks, Skates, Rays, Chimaeras

• Endoskeleton made of cartilage

• Some can detect changes in electrical fields and water pressure

Class Actinopterygii

• Ray-finned fishes

• Endoskeleton of ossified bone

Class Sarcopterygii

Lobe-finned fishes

Class Amphibia

• Frogs, Salamanders, toads, caecilians

• Live on land but are dependent on water for reproduction

Clade Sauropsida/Reptilia

• Turtles, snakes, lizards, crocodilians, and birds

• Use an amniotic egg for reproduction.

• Protects embryo from drying out.

• Allows for reproduction away from water

• All reptiles except birds are ectotherms

• Birds must be able to regulate heat internally to fly without overheating.

Mammal Dentition

Carnivore Skulls with large canines and carnassial molars for piercing flesh. Note the ridge on the back of the skull for jaw muscle attachment.

Herbivore with large incisors for nipping and broad flat molars for shredding vegetation

omnivores have large canines and flat molars for chewing

piscivore: homodont teeth with all their teeth appearing similar