social psych final part 1

Aggression

Behavior intended to harm another person.

Emotional/Impulsive Aggression

Aggression driven by anger and emotion with the primary goal of causing harm.

Cognitive/Instrumental Aggression

Aggression used as a means to achieve another goal beyond simply harming someone.

Why do Kruglanski and Fishman see terrorism as instrumental aggression?

Terrorism is used as a tool to achieve political, social, or ideological goals.

Violent Video Games (Bushman & Anderson, 2002)

Violent video games increase aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors while reducing prosocial behavior.

Berkowitz & Lepage Study

Participants who had been angered delivered stronger shocks when guns were present, demonstrating the weapons effect.

When do we start to recognize the self?

Around 18–24 months of age.

Is self-recognition uniquely human?

No. Some great apes, dolphins, elephants, and magpies also show self-recognition.

Does failing the mirror test mean dogs cannot recognize themselves?

No. Dogs may rely more on smell than vision and may recognize themselves in other ways.

Self-Concept

The beliefs and knowledge people have about themselves.

Twenty Statements Test

A measure in which people answer “Who am I?” twenty times to reveal aspects of their self-concept.

When defining the self, do American children focus on similarity or uniqueness?

Uniqueness.

Kim & Markus Pen Study

Americans preferred unique pens while East Asians preferred common pens, reflecting cultural differences in uniqueness preferences.

Independent Self-Construal

Defining oneself through personal traits and individuality; common in North America and Western cultures.

Interdependent Self-Construal

Defining oneself through relationships and social roles; common in East Asian cultures.

Gender Differences and Self-Construal

Females are often socialized toward interdependence while males are often socialized toward independence.

Levels of Self-Representation

Individual self, relational self, and collective self.

Self-Awareness

Directing attention toward oneself.

Self-Consciousness

A chronic tendency to focus on oneself.

Situations that Increase Self-Awareness

Mirrors, cameras, audiences, recordings, and hearing one's own voice.

Spotlight Effect

The tendency to overestimate how much others notice our appearance and behavior.

Barry Manilow Study

Participants wearing an embarrassing Barry Manilow shirt greatly overestimated how many people noticed it.

Illusion of Transparency

The tendency to overestimate how easily others can detect our emotions, thoughts, and deception.

Lie-or-Truth Transparency Study

Participants believed others could tell whether they were lying or telling the truth much more easily than they actually could.

Does Self-Awareness Increase Honesty?

Generally yes, because attention to oneself increases awareness of personal standards.

Halloween Candy Study

Children were less likely to steal candy when a mirror increased self-awareness.

Self-Esteem

A person's overall evaluation of their worth.

State Self-Esteem

Temporary feelings of self-worth that fluctuate across situations.

Trait Self-Esteem

Relatively stable feelings of self-worth over time.

Explicit Self-Esteem

Conscious and deliberate evaluations of self-worth.

Implicit Self-Esteem

Automatic and unconscious evaluations of self-worth.

Contingencies of Self-Worth

Domains on which people base their self-esteem, such as grades, appearance, or relationships.

Sociometer Theory

Self-esteem functions as a gauge of social acceptance and belonging.

Social Identity Theory

Part of self-concept comes from membership in social groups.

Collective Self-Esteem

Evaluation of one's social groups and group memberships.

Private Collective Self-Esteem

Personal evaluation of one's group.

Public Collective Self-Esteem

Beliefs about how others evaluate one's group.

Membership Esteem

Feelings about one's value as a group member.

Identity Importance

How central group membership is to self-concept.

Looking-Glass Self

The idea that people develop self-views based on how they think others see them.

Does Stigma Reduce Self-Esteem?

Not necessarily; people often maintain self-esteem despite stigma.

Self-Esteem in Japan vs North America

Japanese people generally express less self-enhancement than North Americans.

Effect of Time in North America on Asian Heritage Individuals

More exposure to North American culture tends to increase self-enhancing responses.

Japanese vs American Self-Enhancement

Americans self-enhance directly, while Japanese people are more likely to focus on self-improvement.

Dunning-Kruger Effect

People with low ability often overestimate their competence.

Social Comparison Theory

People evaluate themselves by comparing themselves with others.

Downward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to worse-off others to feel better.

Upward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to better-off others for inspiration or self-improvement.

When is Downward Comparison Helpful?

When maintaining self-esteem.

When is Upward Comparison Helpful?

When motivating growth and improvement.

Reflection Process (SEM Model)

Another person's success boosts self-esteem when their performance is not self-relevant.

Comparison Process (SEM Model)

Another person's success threatens self-esteem when the domain is self-relevant.

BIRGing

Basking In Reflected Glory by associating with successful others.

CORFing

Cutting Off Reflected Failure by distancing oneself from unsuccessful others.

Self-Verification Theory

People seek feedback that confirms their existing self-views.

Why Balance Self-Motives?

Self-enhancement, self-verification, and self-assessment each serve important psychological functions.

Self-Reference Effect

Information related to the self is remembered better.

Self-Complexity

Having many distinct self-aspects.

Self-Concept Clarity

Having a clearly defined and stable self-concept.

Self-Affirmation Theory

Reflecting on important values helps maintain self-integrity when threatened.

Negative Outcomes of Narcissism

Aggression, relationship problems, entitlement, and poor long-term adjustment.

Baumeister on Self-Esteem

Raising self-esteem alone does not reliably improve academic performance, lawfulness, behavior, or social functioning.

Labeling Bias

Assigning labels to people can shape expectations and influence behavior toward them.

Schachter Affiliation Study

People awaiting an anxiety-provoking event preferred to wait with others rather than alone.

Self-Presentation

Attempts to control the impressions others form of us.

Ingratiation

Trying to be liked; elicits liking.

Self-Promotion

Emphasizing competence; elicits respect.

Intimidation

Projecting power; elicits fear.

Supplication

Displaying weakness; elicits sympathy and help.

Exemplification

Demonstrating moral virtue; elicits admiration.

High Self-Monitors

Adapt behavior to fit social situations and mimic others more.

Low Self-Monitors

Behave more consistently across situations and mimic others less.

Need to Belong

A fundamental human motivation to form and maintain strong interpersonal relationships.

Cyberball Task

A virtual ball-tossing game used to create feelings of social exclusion when participants are ignored.

Effect of Cyberball Exclusion

Participants report feeling rejected, hurt, and less connected.

Harry Harlow Monkey Research

Infant monkeys preferred a soft cloth mother over a wire mother with food, demonstrating the importance of comfort and attachment.

What did Harlow's research teach us?

Social connection and nurturance are critical for healthy development and wellbeing.

Social Relationships and Mortality Risk

Strong social relationships predict lower mortality risk and are as important as or more important than many physical health factors.

Being Alone vs Lonely

Being alone is objective physical isolation; loneliness is the subjective feeling of lacking desired social connection.

Does the Internet Make You Lonelier?

Research shows both positive and negative effects depending on how it is used.

Replacement Hypothesis

Internet use increases loneliness by replacing face-to-face interactions.

Simulation Hypothesis

Internet use can reduce loneliness by helping people form and maintain relationships.

Evidence for the Replacement Hypothesis

Excessive passive online activity can reduce real-world social interaction.

Evidence for the Simulation Hypothesis

Online communication often strengthens existing relationships and social support.

Communal Relationships

People provide benefits based on concern for each other's welfare without expecting immediate repayment.

Exchange Relationships

Benefits are given with expectations of reciprocity and fairness.

Attachment Theory

Early caregiver relationships shape expectations and behavior in later relationships.

Strange Situation

A procedure assessing infant attachment through separations and reunions with caregivers.

Secure Attachment (Infants)

Distress upon separation and comfort upon reunion.

Anxious-Resistant Attachment

Extreme distress during separation and ambivalent behavior upon reunion.

Avoidant Attachment

Little distress upon separation and avoidance upon reunion.

Disorganized Attachment

Inconsistent, confused, or contradictory behavior toward the caregiver.

Secure Adult Attachment

Comfortable with intimacy and dependence.

Anxious Adult Attachment

Fear of abandonment and excessive need for closeness.

Avoidant Adult Attachment

Discomfort with closeness and dependence.

Attachment Anxiety

Concern about rejection and abandonment.

Attachment Avoidance

Discomfort with intimacy and dependence.

Secure Attachment (Dimensional Model)

Low anxiety and low avoidance.

Preoccupied Attachment

High anxiety and low avoidance.