child development 3

Biological sex

physical and physiological traits

ex. chromosomes (XX, XY), hormones (estrogens, androgens), reproductive anatomy

Gender

sociocultural roles, norms, and expectations

Gender roles

Cultural expectations for behaviors specific to males and females

• young children believe that changing external features means changing gender

Gender norms

Clothing, toys, activities

Gender stereotypes

Girls are emotional, boys are strong

Stereotype

Occurs when people believe that others possess certain characteristics simply as a result of being a member of a particular group

Why do gender differences exist?

• Biology

• Socialization

Biological impacts on gender differences

• Evolution: over the course of human development, different characteristics promoted survival for the two sexes (ex. aggression vs nurture)

• Ethological: study of animal behavior, noticed gender differences in human ancestors

• Hormonal: males and females are born with different levels of hormones

Socialization

the process by which an individual learns the rules and norms of appropriate behavior (involves parents, peers, media)

Social cognitive theory

emphasizes that gender differences are based on the behaviors that children learn from those around them

How do children learn gender roles from parents?

• Males and females treated differently from birth

• Types of gender socialization;

  • gender-specific environments (bedroom color)

  • parenting practices (calm vs disciplinary)

  • responses to violations of gender expectations (scolding vs comforting)

  • role models (mother vs father)

  • gendered communication

How do children learn gender roles from peers?

• same-gendered group play (segregation)

  • boys play with boys, girls play with girls

• cross-gendered behavior (criticism from peers)

  • “Thats a girls toy”

How do children learn gender roles from teachers?

• different expectations (math/science vs English/art)

• Different responses (criticism vs praise)

• role models

How do children learn gender roles from the media?

observe how males and females are depicted in books, online, movies and shows

Gender identity (age 3)

The child views themselves as a male or female

Gender constancy (age 7)

the understanding that femaleness and maleness are biological and will not change across situations

Androgyny

Term for the combination of feminine and masculine traits for one person

• Some argue it is better to be androgynous because you have a greater repertoire of traits in their daily lives

Attachment

strong emotional bond that emerges between infant and caregiver

Theories of Attachment

• psychoanalytic theory (Freud)

• learning theory (Drive reduction explanation)

Challenges to feeding situation

• attachment to others

• Harry Harlow’s contact comfort

Infant massage (Tiffany Field)

• increased weight gain in premature infants

• decreases stress

• decreases sleep problems

• enhances father-infant bond

Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment

• rooted in evolution

• focuses on infant’s relationship with primary caregiver

• Inspired by Konrad Lorenz

  • Imprinting → a chick follows the first moving object it sees

    • (humans don’t imprint but seek proximity)

• Stages:

  • Preattachment (birth-6 weeks)

  • Attachment in the making (6 weeks-6 months)

  • Clear-cut attachment (6 -18 months)

  • Reciprocal relationships (18 months +)

Preattachment stage (birth-6 weeks)

• Infant produces signals, such as crying and smiling, that encourages the caregiver to react

• Does not show particular preference for an adult

Attachment in the making (6 weeks-6 months)

• Anyone can feed/care for baby, but specific preference towards primary caregiver begins to develop

• Do not protest against the caregiver as long as their needs are met

Secure base

primary caregiver who provides a child with a safe, consistent, and supportive foundation from which to explore their environment

Clear-cut attachment (6 -18 months)

• strong, specific attachment to the primary caregiver forms

• (1) secure base

• (2) separation anxiety (9-15 months)

• (3) reunion behavior

• (4) stranger anxiety

Reciprocal relationships (18 months +)

• child understands the parent/child relationship (the parent will return and reduce anxiety)

• develop mental representation of relationships

• no sign of mistrust

• child is fine with caregiver

mental representation

internal, cognitive copies of stimuli that allow the mind to process and manipulate the world around us

Primary attachment figure

the person who is sought out when the child experiences some kind of distress or threat

Erickson’s trust vs mistrust stage

Infant requires a caregiver consistently to provide love and care in order to develop a lifelong sense of trust

Strange situation- developed by Mary Ainsworth

• standardized laboratory measure of attachment

• approx. 30 mins in comfortable space

• caregiver and child in room together, observe actions

• observe child when stranger/caregiver enters/leaves room

Four patterns of attachment

• secure

• avoidant (insecure)

• ambivalent (insecure)

• disorganized (insecure)

Secure attachment

• happy when caregiver returns

• positive reunion

• stranger anxiety

• secure base

Avoidant attachment

• no secure base, won’t seek caregiver

• avoidant (will want to get put down if picked up)

• ignores caregiver (no reaction when caregiver returns)

• less stranger anxiety

Ambivalent (resistant) attachment

• no secure base

• cling to caregiver

• lack of exploration (will not look at toys)

• happy when caregiver returns but does not wish to get picked up

Disorganized attachment

• child has no consistent way of coping

• may appear detached w/ parent, but angry when parent leaves

• common in toddlers who have other issues (Autism, Down syndrome)

Critiques of Attachment Theory

• The child effect

• Cultural variation

The child effect

Bowlby’s theory overstates the mother’s influence and understates the child’s influence on quality of attachment

Reciprocal/bidirectional parent-child relationships

• Caregiver influences child and child influences caregiver

• ex. caregiver may fail to respond to their toddlers when their child is giving them a difficult time

Cultural variations in attachment

• all cultures: infants develop attachments to people who provide loving, protective care

• Secure attachment is the most common classification in all cultures studied

• In the US and northern Europe, toddlers more likely than Japanese toddlers to be considered insecure avoidant

• Insecure resistant attachment common in Japan

  • Japanese mothers rarely apart from their children

• Non-western norm of maternal care emphasizes interdependence and collectivism to greater extent

• In many traditional and non-western cultures, ideal for maternal care involves controlling a child’s behavior, anticipating child’s needs

• Japanese amae: very close, physical indulgent relationship between mother and child

Factors associated with attachment

• Parental sensitivity(how parents react to child’s needs)

• children’s temperament (difficult child causes desensitization in parent responses)

Parenting styles

practices that parents exhibit in relation to their children and beliefs about those practices

Demandingness

high expectations and setting appropriate limits (rules and regulations)

Responsiveness

parental warmth, support, and acceptance (comfort)

Four parenting styles

• authoritative

• authoritarian

• permissive

• disengaged (uninvolved)

Authoritarian parenting style

• high demandingness, low responsiveness

• expect child to obey

• no emotions, no compromise

• expectations must be followed

• parent is boss

• outcomes: can result in children who are obedient but may lower self-esteem and higher levels of anxiety

Authoritative parenting style

• high demandingness, high responsiveness

• will explain why and listen to the child

• listen and reason

• generally the best style

• outcomes: leads to children with higher self-esteem, social competence, and independence

Permissive parenting style

• low demandingness, high responsiveness

• not enough expectations put in pace

• in tune w/ child’s emotions

• “cool parents”; friendship

• outcomes: often associated with children who may struggle with authority and self-discipline

Disengaged parenting style

• low demandingness, low responsiveness

• physically and emotionally absent

• no support

• outcomes: may lead to children who are emotionally withdrawn and have poor academic performance

Cultural limitations of parenting styles

• Authoritative style is rare in cultures outside of the west

• Responsiveness and demandingness are unique to American majority culture

• In traditional cultures, parents expect that their children with obey with no questions

Parenting styles in Asia

• Tradition of filial piety: children are expected to respect, obey, and revere their parents through life

• role of parent authority has greater inherent authority than US

• parents do not provide reason for their upmost obedience and respect

Parenting styles in Latin America

• Authority of the parent is viewed as upmost priority

• Respeto: emphasizes respect for and obedience to parents and elders, especially the father

• parents do not need to explain their authority

• Familismo: emphasizes the love, closeness, and mutual obligations of Latino family life

Margaret Mead’s classification of childhood social stages

• Lap child (0-2 years)

• Knee child (3-4 years)

• Yard child (5-6 years)

• School/community child (6-10 years)

Lap child (0-2 years)

need constant care, doted on by others

Knee child (3-4 years)

still cared for mainly by others, but will spend some time with other children

Yard child (5-6 years)

spends more time with same-sex peers, sometimes unsupervised

School/community child (6-10 years)

spends a large part of day with peers, typically in school under the authority of teachers

Bronfrenbrenner’s ecological theory of development

• theory describes how children develop in different contexts

• shaped by 5 interrelated systems

Microsystem

Immediate environment, the setting where people experience their daily lives (ex. family, friends, peers, siblings)

Mesosystem

network of interconnections between the various microsystems (ex. parent-teacher, sibling-parent)

Exosystem

the societal institutions that have indirect but potentially important influences on development (ex. schools, media, extended family, religious institutions)

Macrosystem

broad system of cultural beliefs and values, and the economic and governmental systems that are built on those beliefs and values

Chronosystem

changes that occur in developmental circumstances over time, with respect to the individual development and history (ex. COVID)

Play: toddlerhood/early childhood

• Styles:

  • solitary

  • onlooker

  • parallel

  • simple social

  • cooperative pretend

• In toddlerhood, solitary, onlooker, and parallel play are most popular

• In early childhood, simple social and cooperative pretend play are most popular

Solitary play

toddlers play all by themselves

Onlooker play

toddler stands and watches other children play

Parallel play

toddlers take part in the same activity but do not acknowledge each othe

Simple social play

social interactions, toddlers will talk to each other, give and receive toys

Cooperative pretend play

most advanced; social interactions through pretend and fantasy

Play: middle childhood

• simple social play remains popular (ex. tag)

• cooperative pretend play also popular (ex. pretend school)

• cognitive development drives more complex and rule-based play (ex. action figures but with rules)

• fantasy play (ex. imaginary friends)

• hobbies (ex. collecting things)

• board/card/video games popular

• physical development spurs more physical play (ex. unorganized/organized sports)

How has society influenced play over the years?

Play has significantly reduced over the years, most kids stay inside now because of technology

Freud psychoanalytic theory

human behavior is largely driven by unconscious motives, childhood experiences, and unresolved conflicts

Learning theory (drive reduction explanation)

motivation stems from the need to reduce internal tension (drives) caused by biological imbalances (needs)