Chapter 4 Glossary

antecedent

what happens just before something else

environmental conditions that precede the behaviour; also called ‘stimulus’

attention

the learner being consciously aware of the model’s behaviour and observing it.

The amount of attention paid will depend on the perceptual capabilities of the learner, our level of interest, the situation and any distractions, the salience of the behaviour and the attractiveness of the model (i.e. how appealing the person is to us).

We are more likely to pay attention when:

●model perceived positively, liked, high status

●perceived similarities between model and observer (e.g. age, gender, ethnicity)

●model is familiar and important to us

●behaviour is visible and stands out

●behaviour is imitable

behaviour

any action made by a living person (or animal) that can be observed or measured

behaviourist approach to learning

emphasises the study of observable behaviour alone to understand and explain learning, without regard to underlying mental processes; see classical conditioning and operant conditioning

behaviourism

the theory that human and animal behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning, without appeal to thoughts or feelings, and that psychological disorders are best treated by altering behaviour patterns

•a systematic approach to understanding the behaviour of organisms, that focuses on learning as a result of an interaction with environmental stimuli.

•Focused on outwardly observable behaviours

•Minimises the role of mental processes

Refers to learning as conditioning

classical conditioning

a three-phase learning process (before conditioning, during conditioning and after conditioning) that results in the involuntary association between a neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response; see also three-phase model of classical conditioning

a type of behavioural learning in which an involuntary association is formed between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response.

Repeatedly paired with a stimulus that does automatically cause the response

Previously neutral stimulus will now cause the response on its own

Relationship is due to anticipation that the other stimulus is about to occur

Only works for reflexive, automatic, involuntary behaviours

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned or acquired response to the conditioned stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, the stimulus that is initially neutral and does not normally produce the unconditioned response but eventually becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus and elicits a conditioned response

conditioning

a learning process through which stimuli and responses become associated with one another

a basic* form of learning where the organism’s response to a stimulus is modified through experience.

classical conditioning and operant conditioning

consequence

in operant conditioning, the environmental event that occurs immediately after the relevant behaviour and has an effect on the occurrence of the behaviour

stimulus that is experienced as a result of the behaviour, affecting the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated in the same antecedent conditions

discriminative stimulus

the antecedent stimulus that has stimulus control over behaviour because the behaviour was reliably reinforced in the presence of that stimulus in the past

learning

a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience

maturation

the action or process of maturing

motivation

to the desire to reproduce the observed behaviour.

The learner needs to be motivated to produce the behaviour. If it is not useful or desirable in the given context, then you will not reproduce it.

processes within an organism which activate behaviour that is directed towards achieving a particular goal

negative punishment

Negative punishment is the removal of a pleasant stimulus after the target behaviour has been performed.

●Stimulus is removed

●Stimulus is pleasant

Decreases the behaviour

negative reinforcement

the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus after the target behaviour has been performed.

●Stimulus is removed

●Stimulus is unpleasant

●Increases the behaviour

negative reinforcer

any unpleasant or aversive stimulus that, when removed or avoided, strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a desired response; compare with positive reinforcer

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, any object or event that does not normally produce a predictable response; becomes a conditioned stimulus through repeated association with the unconditioned stimulus

operant

any response (or set of responses) that acts on the environment to produce some kind of consequence

an initially spontaneous behaviour that can be reinforced or punished

operant conditioning

a learning process whereby the consequences of a behaviour (e.g reward or punishment) determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future; see also three-phase model of operant conditioning

a type of behavioural learning where voluntary behaviours are modified in response to consequences experienced.

•A learning process by which the likelihood of a particular behaviour occurring is determined by the consequences of that behaviour

positive punishment

Positive punishment is giving or applying an unpleasant stimulus after the target behaviour has been performed.

●Stimulus is given / applied

●Stimulus is unpleasant

●Decreases the behaviour

positive reinforcement

giving or applying a pleasant stimulus after the target behaviour has been performed.

●Stimulus is applied / given

●Stimulus is pleasant/desirable

●Increases the behaviour

positive reinforcer

stimulus that strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a desired response by providing a satisfying consequence

punishment

consequences that weaken the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated. There are two ways to do this:

●Apply an unpleasant stimulus (called positive punishment)

●Remove a pleasant stimulus (called negative punishment)

reflex

an unconscious, automatic, involuntary reaction to a stimulus that occurs in the same way each time

reinforcement classical

consequences that strengthen the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated. There are two ways to do this:

●Apply a pleasant stimulus (called positive reinforcement)

●Remove an unpleasant stimulus (called negative reinforcement)

reinforce

to strengthen or support an existing feeling, idea, or habit

reproduction (in observational learning)

when a behaviour that has been closely attended to and retained in memory is imitated

the physical ability to imitate the behaviour that has been observed.

response

a reaction by an organism to a stimulus

retention (in observational learning)

remembering a behaviour that has been closely attended to

storage of the mental representation of what we have observed in our memories to allow us to recall the behaviour later.

•After paying attention, we have to remember their behaviour and the consequences in order to have any chance of replicating it.

social learning

the process of learning by observing the social interactions and behaviours of others

social-cognitive approach (to learning)

emphasises the role of cognitive processes such as attention, memory and motivation in learning, in addition to environmental stimuli such as conditioning, reinforcement and punishment; see also observational learning

stimulus

any object or event that elicits (produces) a response from an organism

three-phase model of operant conditioning

explains operant conditioning as occurring in a specific sequence:

A: presence of an antecedent stimulus that occurs before the behaviour;

B: the behaviour that occurs due to the antecedent

C: the consequence to the behaviour

vicarious conditioning

●Vicarious reinforcement increases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way to a model whose behaviour is reinforced.

●Vicarious punishment decreases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way to a model whose behaviour is punished.

in observational learning, when an individual observes a model displaying behaviour that is either reinforced or punished and later behaves in the same way, in a modified way, or refrains from doing so as a result of the observation

vicarious punishment

being conditioned indirectly by observing someone else’s punishment

vicarious reinforcement

being conditioned indirectly by observing someone else’s reinforcement

unconditioned response (UCR)

in classical conditioning, an involuntary response that occurs when the unconditioned stimulus is presented

occurs automatically when the Unconditioned Stimulus is presented.

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

in classical conditioning, any stimulus that consistently produces a particular naturally occurring, involuntary response (i.e. an unconditioned response)

way of knowing

different ways people arrive at a sense of knowledge of the world and respective fields

memory

the processing, storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning.

what results from learning

Memory, if we don’t remember, then we haven’t learned it

organism  

person or animal (the learner)

=   stimulus  

some kind of environmental ‘trigger’ that causes a response

=

  response  

the organism’s behaviour in reaction to the stimulus

Neutral stimulus is

a stimulus that doesn’t naturally cause the desired response

stimulus that causes no response

UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (UCS)

stimulus that naturally causes the response

UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UCR) 

natural response to the UCS

CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS) 

stimulus that now causes the response

CONDITIONED RESPONSE (CR) 

learned response to the CS

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) -

the stimulus which is neutral at the start of conditioning.  It wouldn't normally produce the Unconditioned response (UCR), but does so eventually because of its association with the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS).

In Pavlov's expt.

the behaviours which is identical to the UCR but is caused by the CS after conditioning. 

Three phase model - Classical conditioning

The three-phase model describes the learning process in classical conditioning, consisting of before, during, and after conditioning phases, where the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response.

BEFORE CONDITIONING
The UCS naturally produces the UCR, while the NS produces no response.

  NS   à   no response

  UCS   à   UCR

DURING CONDITIONING (also called the acquisition phase)

The NS and the UCS are paired repeatedly, in that order.

       NS + UCS  à  UCR 

AFTER CONDITIONING 

The previously NS is now called the CS, and it now produces the CR on its own.

  CS  à  CR

order of presentation classical

The sequence in which the neutral stimulus (NS) is presented in relation to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) during conditioning, impacting the effectiveness of the association between them.

very important that the neutral stimulus (NS) is presented BEFORE the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

●This is because the response is ‘anticipatory’

timing of stimuli classical

Stronger associations are also the result of stimuli that are paired close together in time (a matter of seconds). The more time that passes between the NS and UCS, the weaker the perceived link between them.

The association also needs to be repeated.

type of responses

It is important to note that classical conditioning can only be used to train involuntary, reflexive or automatic behaviours, because it takes advantage of already or naturally occurring responses

phobias

Intense, irrational and persistent fears of specific objects of situations

Phobias are complex instances of conditioned emotional responses (CC)

taste aversion

A special type of classical conditioning, known as one trial learning, can occur when the stimulus induces an intense response such as vomiting. This is adaptive, as it causes us to avoid foods that are poisonous or harmful after just one negative experience.

Exam questions classical conditioning

•Exam questions on classical conditioning are typically worth 3 marks:

•One mark for describing the NS and the UCS naturally causing the UCR before conditioning, including correct identification of parts

•One mark for describing a repeated pairing of the NS + UCS in that order during conditioning causing the UCR

•One mark for describing that the NS has become the CS after conditioning, and it automatically causing the CR without the presence of the UCS

Three PHase Model - operant conditioning

Antecedent = environmental conditions that precede the behaviour; also called ‘stimulus’

Behaviour = also called ‘operant’ or ‘response’

Consequence = stimulus that is experienced as a result of the behaviour, affecting the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated in the same antecedent conditions

Operant conditioning example

Antecedent - bored at home, walk past the pantry

  Behaviour - open the pantry and eat chocolate

  Consequence - pleasure, relief from boredom / stress

  à repeat behaviour again in future when we walk past the pantry

reinforcement example

Positive reinforcement:

●Getting an A on your exam can be achieved by studying, so studying will be repeated (increased behaviour)

Negative reinforcement:

●Headaches can be removed by taking paracetamol, so taking paracetamol will be repeated (increased behaviour)

Both result in a desirable consequence overall, so the likelihood of repeating the behaviour increases.

Punishment example

Positive punishment:

●Having to write out lines (punishment) might be a result of yelling out in class, so you will be less likely to yell out in class again

Negative punishment:

●Having your phone taken off you (response cost) might be a result of using it in class, so you will be less likely to use your phone in class again

Both result in an undesirable consequence overall, so the likelihood of repeating the behaviour decreases.

order of presentation operant

It is essential that the consequence come after the behaviour.

This is fairly logical. If it comes before, then it’s not a consequence, and the organism will not perform the behaviour in expectation of the reward.

timing operant

Like with classical conditioning, it is ideal if the timing between the behaviour and the consequence is quite close.

This creates a strong association in the learner that the consequence is related to the behaviour.

Appropriateness of punishment operant

The reward or punishment must be seen as appropriate in scale or severity to the behaviour that is being learned.

Classical vs Operant Conditioning

Classical conditioning:

●Involves an association between one stimulus and another

●Passive

●Automatic behaviours

●Stimulus comes before behaviour

Operant conditioning

●Involves an association between a behaviour and consequence

●Active

●Voluntary behaviours

●Stimulus comes after behaviour

●Both involve an anticipation or expectation of a causal relationship

●Both involve stimuli and responses/behaviours

Social-cognitive theory

an approach to understanding learning that focuses on our ability to learn from other people through applying a sequence of mental processes.
Social =  learning from experiences with other people

Cognitive = mental processes that are used to process and utilise this information

Observational learning

a form of social-cognitive learning where we acquire skills or knowledge from watching others’ behaviour and the consequences of that behaviour.

•observational learning

•social-cognitive learning

•modelling (because we imitate the actions of another person, known as the ‘model’

vicarious conditioning

acquisition of information, skills or behaviour through watching the performance of others, either directly or indirectly; involves a sequence of processes called attention, retention, reproduction, motivation and reinforcement; also called modelling

Process of observational learning

Model

Attention: Learner pays attention to the model in order to observe the modelled behaviour

Retention: Learner mentally represents and retains what he has heard and seen from the model for later recall

Reproduction: Learner attempts to reproduce the observed behaviour depending on physical capabilities.

Motivation: Learner is more likely to repeat the behaviour when they have a reason.

Reinforcement: Consequences of the behaviour influence the likelihood of future imitation.

reinforcement observational leraning

consequences that increase the likelihood the behaviour will be repeated again in the future.

It is relevant to observational learning on two different levels:

●The vicarious reinforcement that the learner receives from watching the model receive desirable consequences

●The external reinforcement that then comes directly to the learner when they imitate the model through other people’s pleasant reactions AND/OR the internal self-reinforcement that comes through meeting your goals (a sense of achievement)

ATSI ways of knowing

Their ways of knowing are ‘wholistic and relational to Country’ – the land, waterways and seas to which they are connected through ancestral ties and family origins.

Multi modal system

means a person learns through a combination of two or more modes. Modes include written language, spoken language, and patterns of meaning that are visual, audio, gestural, tactile and spatial. Learning occurs in a way or manner in which something is experienced, expressed, or done.

Songlines

Knowledge is attached to numerous locations along navigational tracks (songlines) throughout Australia and takes on a multi modal form.

•his knowledge is shared and learnt in a multimodal way for example; narratives (stories), song, dance and ceremony.

•Connection to people, the relationship to each other, animals, plant life and earth are the essence of ATSI culture.

What are the 8 ATSI ways of knowing

Stories, histories, songs and yarning

Knowledge stages/processes, navigating mental landscapes, visual records/sites of Law/Story

Unspoken/instinctive/ancestral knowledge, singing, body language, communicative silences

Symbols, signs, pictures, imaginings, messages, designs and images

Knowledge of/connection to land, waters, climate, skies, plants, animals and place

Non-linear/contradictory/”irrational”/creative ideas, circular logic, indirect processes/management, adaptive capacity

Holistic knowledge, balance of communal and individual needs, wholes to parts, observation before action

Kinship, community, culture base, communal governance/knowledge/ownership.