Research Methods and Psychological Principles

A set of flashcards covering the key terms and definitions related to research methods and psychological principles.

Descriptive Statistics

Summarized data set providing an overall idea of results, including measures such as mean, median, and mode.

Histogram

A type of graph depicting the frequency of values in a data set using bins on the x-axis and frequency on the y-axis.

Normal Distribution

A bell-shaped curve distribution characterized by a single peak, commonly observed in measurable traits such as height and IQ.

Mean

The average value of a data set, calculated by summing all values and dividing by the number of values.

Outlier

An extreme value in a data set that can significantly skew the mean.

Mode

The most frequently occurring value in a data set, useful for non-numerical data.

Median

The middle value of a data set when arranged numerically; calculated by averaging the two central values if the data set has an even number of items.

Standard Deviation

A measure of the average distance of each data point from the mean, indicating data spread.

Inferential Statistics

Methods that allow researchers to make inferences about a population based on sample results.

T Test

An inferential statistic used to compare the means of two groups to determine if they are statistically different.

P Value

A probability value that indicates the likelihood of observing a difference by chance; a value less than 0.05 is considered statistically significant.

Type 1 Error

Incorrectly rejecting a null hypothesis, believing a difference exists when it does not.

Type 2 Error

Failing to reject a null hypothesis, believing no difference exists when it does.

Observational Research

A research method where researchers observe subjects in their natural environment without intervention.

Correlation

A statistical measure that describes the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

A number between -1 and 1 that indicates the degree of correlation between two variables, with values near ±1 indicating strong relationships.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus) after conditioning.

Extinction

The process in which a conditioned response gradually disappears when the conditioned stimulus no longer signals the unconditioned stimulus.

Generalization

The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.

Discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between different stimuli, responding only to the conditioned stimulus.

Instrumental Conditioning

Learning process where behavior is modified by its consequences, focusing on the association between actions and outcomes.

Reinforcer

Any stimulus that increases the chances of a behavior being repeated.

Omission Training

A form of punishment conditioning whereby a positive reinforcer is removed to decrease a behavior's occurrence.

Social Facilitation

The tendency for individuals to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others.

Bystander Effect

A social psychological phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help someone in distress when there are other people present.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overestimate the impact of personal disposition and underestimate situational influences on others' behaviors.

Cognitive Dissonance

The psychological discomfort experienced when holding two conflicting beliefs or when behavior contradicts beliefs.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute positive outcomes to internal factors (personal strengths) and negative outcomes to external factors (situational influences).