ap psych unit 2

perception

how we see and understand world (interprets stimulus)

sensation

detects sensory stimulus

top down processing

a type of processing which uses prior knowledge/exp to interpret sensory info

bottom up processing

type of processing used when new stimuli/exp is unfamiliar or complex

perceptual set

a mental shortcut brain uses to interpret exp quickly; influences immediate perception based on exp or emotions which changes how we interpret stimuli in that specific moment

perceptual principles

human instinct to group elements tg to form meaningful patterns

figure and ground

breaking of visual system into 2 categories

closure

brain fills in missing info when viewing familiar but incomplete object

similarity

perceiving group of similar objects/patterns as one unit

proximity

perceiving objects that are placed close together as one unit

continuation

following of continuous lines/paths (arrow point)

symmetry

symmetrical objects are often perceived as one subject, not indiv separate elements

depth perception

ability to perceive relative distance of obj in one’s visual field

binocular cues

reliance of both eyes working together

retinal disparity

difference betw 2 images created by 2 eyes to perceive depth

monocular cues

reliance of one eye to perceive depth and distance (focuses on visual info that one eye alone can pick up)

relative size

closer objects are larger, farther objects are smaller

interposition

when one obj blocks another, the blocked obj is perceived to be farther, and the blocking obj is perceived to be closer

relative height

objs higher in visual field are farther, vice versa

texture and gradient

clear, detailed images are closer, blurry less detailed images are farther

linear perspective

parallel lines seem to converge to a distant point

motion parallax

objs closer to u move faster than objs farther move slower (cars close by vs distant clouds/buildings)

selective attention

tuning out other stimuli in environment to focus on certain stimuli

cocktail party effect

ability to stay focused on a stimuli while being ready to detect something important in the background

inattentional blindness

failure to notice stimuli in visual field bc our attention is focused elsewhere

change blindness

type of inattentional blindness where we fail to notice changes in environment

apparent movement

perception of motion when nothing is moving

stroboscopic motion

illusion of movement by rapidly displaying images (animation)

phi phenomenon

lights blink on and off in a sequence leading to perception of movement

induced movement

stationary obj seems to move due to movement of the surrounding object

autokinetic effect

stationary point of light in dark environment appears to move

schema

mental framework that organizes info; how things work and what to expect in certain contexts

concept

mental categories used to group similar things together; what something is

prototypes

best example of a concept

assimilation

learning something new to ADD into existing schema (no change in thinking)

accommodation

learning something new which alters the schema to fit around the new info

executive functions

mental skills that help plan and organize

algorithms

tackling a problem in a step by step/systematic; longer time, but more consistent

heuristics

mental shortcuts based on past exp; faster time, less consistent

representativeness heuristics

judgement of stimuli based on how much something resembles a typical case

availability heuristics

judgments based on how easily examples come to mind

mental set

tendency to approach problem in a way that worked in the past even if its not the most efficient for current situation

priming

exposure to 1 stimulus influences how we respond to later stim

repetition priming

ur being primed repeatedly!!!!!!!!!

semantic priming

a type of priming where the influence of one word changes interpretation of another

framing

how info is presented and how that presentation can influence thoughts and behaviors

gamblers fallacy

incorrect belief that likelihood of random event changes based on prev. outcome

sunk cost fallacy

tendency to continue to invest in something because past resources have already been invested even if it isnt beneficial

divergent thinking

exploration of many possible solutions which expands number of options for solving problem

convergent thinking

process of elimination

functional fixedness

limitation of the use of an obj in traditional way

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

implicit memory

memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

procedural memory

the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

visuospatial sketchpad

A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Multi-Store Model

An explanation of memory based on three separate memory stores, and how information is transferred between these stores.

central executive

The part of working memory that is responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources.

phonological loop

A component of working memory where we repeat verbal information to help us remember it

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

Storing

refers to how you retain encoded information in memory

Structural Processing

Words are learnt by remembering their physical features, such as whether they were in upper or lower case, started with a vowel or consonant, or were long or short.

Phonemic Processing

when we encode the sound of a word

encoding

The process of acquiring information and entering into one's memory. It involves processes and strategies to get information

mnemonic device

A stategy that processes the aid in encoding information into working and long-term memory

method of loci

A memory enhancement strategic that uses spatial memory and visualization to help recall information

chunking

The organization of items into familiar or manageable chunks. Grouping information together into clusters

spacing effect

A process that has significant differences in encoding and memory consolidation depending on whether information is encoded at once or distributed over time

massed practice

A person practices a skill or learns new information in a short time

distributed practice

Reviewing information over a distributed period of time

serial position effect

The effect an item's position on a list has on how well its recalled

sensory memory

a type of memory that briefly holds sensory information

short term memory

a type of memory that passively stores a small amount of information for a short amount of time

working memory

a type of memory that specializes in the active manipulation and processing of information

long term memory

a type of memory that stores information for extended periods of time

maintenance rehearsal

the repetition of information to keep it in short term memory

elaborative rehearsal

the connection o f new information to existing knowledge to promote long-term retention

autobiographical memory

a type of long term memory which allows one to recall personal experiences with extreme detail because of unique biological processes which allow for superior memory storage

amnesia

memory loss due to brain injury of disease

retrograde amnesia 

a type of memory loss where one cannot remember events that occurred before the onset of memory loss

anterograde amnesia

a type of memory loss where one cannot form new memories after the onset of memory loss

alzheimers

a progressive disease that destroys memory and other mental functions

infantile amnesia

inability to recall memories from early childhood

memory retrieval

the process of accessing information stored in memory

recall

the process of remembering information without cues

recognition

the process of identifying information using retrieval cues

retrieval cues 

words or other stimuli that can help us retrieve information that is stored in our memoriespr

priming

the implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus; the unconscious activation of particular associations in long-term implicit memory