unit 4

dispositional attribution

Explaining behavior by internal traits or personality.

situational attribution

Explaining behavior by external situations or environments.

explanatory style

How people explain positive and negative events in their lives.

self-serving bias

Taking credit for success but blaming failure on outside factors.

fundamental attribution error

Overestimating personality and underestimating situations when judging others.

actor-observer bias

Attributing your own actions to situations but others’ actions to traits.

locus of control

Belief about whether outcomes are controlled internally or externally.

mere exposure effect

People tend to like things they see repeatedly.

self-fulfilling prophecy

Expectations that lead someone to act in ways that make them come true.

social comparison theory

Comparing yourself to others to evaluate yourself.

relative deprivation

Feeling deprived compared to others.

societies

Groups of people who share customs, laws, and organization.

culture

Shared beliefs, behaviors, values, and traditions of a group.

in-group

A group you identify with.

out-group

A group you do not identify with.

stereotypes

Generalized beliefs about a group.

prejudice

Unjustified negative attitudes toward a group.

discrimination

Unfair treatment of people based on group membership.

implicit bias

Automatic unconscious attitudes or stereotypes.

out-group homogeneity bias

Seeing members of other groups as more alike than they are.

in-group bias (ethnocentrism)

Favoring your own group over others.

just-world phenomenon

Belief that people get what they deserve.

belief perseverance (confirmation bias)

Holding onto beliefs despite evidence against them; seeking supporting evidence.

cognitive dissonance

Discomfort caused by conflicting thoughts or behaviors.

social norms

Rules for acceptable behavior in a society.

social influence theory

How people change behavior because of others.

normative influence

Conforming to be liked or accepted.

informational influence

Conforming because others are seen as a source of correct information.

persuasion

Changing attitudes or beliefs through communication.

halo effect

Assuming good qualities in someone because of one positive trait.

elaboration likelihood model

Theory explaining persuasion through central and peripheral routes.

central route

Persuasion based on logic and evidence.

peripheral route

Persuasion based on superficial cues like attractiveness or emotion.

foot-in-the-door

Getting agreement to a small request first to increase later compliance.

door-in-the-face

Starting with a large request so a smaller request seems reasonable.

conformity

Adjusting behavior or thinking to match a group.

obedience

Following direct orders from an authority figure.

collectivist culture

Culture valuing group goals over individual goals.

individualist culture

Culture valuing personal achievement and independence.

multiculturalism

Respecting and valuing many cultures in society.

social facilitation

Improved performance when others are present.

social loafing

Reduced effort when working in groups.

group polarization

Groups strengthening members’ initial opinions.

deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness in groups leading to impulsive behavior.

peer pressure

Influence from peers to behave a certain way.

altruism

Helping others without expecting rewards.

helping behavior

Actions intended to benefit others.

bystander effect

People are less likely to help when others are present.

diffusion of responsibility

Assuming someone else will take action.

false consensus

Overestimating how much others agree with you.

social traps

Situations where self-interest harms the group.

superordinate goal

Shared goal that requires cooperation between groups.

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction (GRIT)

Strategy reducing conflict through small reciprocal acts of cooperation.

groupthink

Desire for harmony causing poor group decisions.

mindguard

Group member protecting the group from opposing information.

I/O psychologists

Psychologists studying workplace behavior and productivity.

burnout

Emotional and physical exhaustion from stress.

psychodynamic

Approach focusing on unconscious drives and conflicts.

free association

Freud’s technique of saying thoughts freely to reveal the unconscious.

id

Unconscious part seeking immediate pleasure.

pleasure principle

Id’s drive to seek pleasure and avoid pain.

superego

Moral part of personality following rules and ideals.

ego

Rational part balancing the id and superego.

reality principle

Ego delaying gratification until appropriate.

repression

Unconsciously blocking painful thoughts.

displacement

Shifting emotions to a safer target.

reaction formation

Acting opposite to true feelings.

compensation

Making up for weaknesses by emphasizing strengths.

rationalization

Creating logical excuses for behavior.

regression

Returning to childish behaviors under stress.

denial

Refusing to accept reality.

sublimation

Channeling unacceptable urges into acceptable activities.

projection

Attributing your own unwanted feelings to others.

self-actualization

Reaching one’s full potential.

self-concept

How a person views themselves.

incongruence

Mismatch between self-concept and reality.

conditions of worth

Standards people think they must meet to gain approval.

unconditional positive regard

Acceptance and support regardless of actions.

self-efficacy

Belief in one’s ability to succeed.

Big Five

Five major personality traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, emotional stability.

openness

Trait involving curiosity and creativity.

conscientiousness

Trait involving organization and responsibility.

extraversion

Trait involving sociability and outgoingness.

agreeableness

Trait involving kindness and cooperation.

emotional stability

Trait involving calmness and low anxiety.

nomothetic analysis

Studying traits common to many people.

idiographic analysis

Studying unique individual traits.

cardinal traits

Dominant traits shaping a person’s life.

central traits

Major characteristics influencing behavior.

secondary traits

Less important traits appearing in certain situations.

source traits

Underlying basic traits causing behavior.

surface traits

Observable personality traits.

projective tests

Personality tests using ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious thoughts.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

Projective test interpreting inkblots.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Projective test creating stories about pictures.

evolutionary theory

Motivation explained through survival and reproduction.

primary drives

Biological needs like hunger and thirst.

secondary drive

Learned needs associated with rewards.

arousal theory

People seek an optimal level of stimulation.

Yerkes-Dodson law

Moderate arousal leads to best performance.