unit 4

dispositional attribution: Explaining behavior by internal traits or personality.

situational attribution: Explaining behavior by external situations or environments.

explanatory style: How people explain positive and negative events in their lives.

self-serving bias: Taking credit for success but blaming failure on outside factors.

fundamental attribution error: Overestimating personality and underestimating situations when judging others.

actor-observer bias: Attributing your own actions to situations but others’ actions to traits.

locus of control: Belief about whether outcomes are controlled internally or externally.

mere exposure effect: People tend to like things they see repeatedly.

self-fulfilling prophecy: Expectations that lead someone to act in ways that make them come true.

social comparison theory: Comparing yourself to others to evaluate yourself.

relative deprivation: Feeling deprived compared to others.

societies: Groups of people who share customs, laws, and organization.

culture: Shared beliefs, behaviors, values, and traditions of a group.

in-group: A group you identify with.

out-group: A group you do not identify with.

stereotypes: Generalized beliefs about a group.

prejudice: Unjustified negative attitudes toward a group.

discrimination: Unfair treatment of people based on group membership.

implicit bias: Automatic unconscious attitudes or stereotypes.

out-group homogeneity bias: Seeing members of other groups as more alike than they are.

in-group bias (ethnocentrism): Favoring your own group over others.

just-world phenomenon: Belief that people get what they deserve.

belief perseverance (confirmation bias): Holding onto beliefs despite evidence against them; seeking supporting evidence.

cognitive dissonance: Discomfort caused by conflicting thoughts or behaviors.

social norms: Rules for acceptable behavior in a society.

social influence theory: How people change behavior because of others.

normative influence: Conforming to be liked or accepted.

informational influence: Conforming because others are seen as a source of correct information.

persuasion: Changing attitudes or beliefs through communication.

halo effect: Assuming good qualities in someone because of one positive trait.

elaboration likelihood model: Theory explaining persuasion through central and peripheral routes.

central route: Persuasion based on logic and evidence.

peripheral route: Persuasion based on superficial cues like attractiveness or emotion.

foot-in-the-door: Getting agreement to a small request first to increase later compliance.

door-in-the-face: Starting with a large request so a smaller request seems reasonable.

conformity: Adjusting behavior or thinking to match a group.

obedience: Following direct orders from an authority figure.

collectivist culture: Culture valuing group goals over individual goals.

individualist culture: Culture valuing personal achievement and independence.

multiculturalism: Respecting and valuing many cultures in society.

social facilitation: Improved performance when others are present.

social loafing: Reduced effort when working in groups.

group polarization: Groups strengthening members’ initial opinions.

deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness in groups leading to impulsive behavior.

peer pressure: Influence from peers to behave a certain way.

altruism: Helping others without expecting rewards.

helping behavior: Actions intended to benefit others.

bystander effect: People are less likely to help when others are present.

diffusion of responsibility: Assuming someone else will take action.

false consensus: Overestimating how much others agree with you.

social traps: Situations where self-interest harms the group.

superordinate goal: Shared goal that requires cooperation between groups.

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction (GRIT): Strategy reducing conflict through small reciprocal acts of cooperation.

groupthink: Desire for harmony causing poor group decisions.

mindguard: Group member protecting the group from opposing information.

I/O psychologists: Psychologists studying workplace behavior and productivity.

burnout: Emotional and physical exhaustion from stress.

psychodynamic: Approach focusing on unconscious drives and conflicts.

free association: Freud’s technique of saying thoughts freely to reveal the unconscious.

id: Unconscious part seeking immediate pleasure.

pleasure principle: Id’s drive to seek pleasure and avoid pain.

superego: Moral part of personality following rules and ideals.

ego: Rational part balancing the id and superego.

reality principle: Ego delaying gratification until appropriate.

repression: Unconsciously blocking painful thoughts.

displacement: Shifting emotions to a safer target.

reaction formation: Acting opposite to true feelings.

compensation: Making up for weaknesses by emphasizing strengths.

rationalization: Creating logical excuses for behavior.

regression: Returning to childish behaviors under stress.

denial: Refusing to accept reality.

sublimation: Channeling unacceptable urges into acceptable activities.

projection: Attributing your own unwanted feelings to others.

self-actualization: Reaching one’s full potential.

self-concept: How a person views themselves.

incongruence: Mismatch between self-concept and reality.

conditions of worth: Standards people think they must meet to gain approval.

unconditional positive regard: Acceptance and support regardless of actions.

self-efficacy: Belief in one’s ability to succeed.

Big Five: Five major personality traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, emotional stability.

openness: Trait involving curiosity and creativity.

conscientiousness: Trait involving organization and responsibility.

extraversion: Trait involving sociability and outgoingness.

agreeableness: Trait involving kindness and cooperation.

emotional stability: Trait involving calmness and low anxiety.

nomothetic analysis: Studying traits common to many people.

idiographic analysis: Studying unique individual traits.

cardinal traits: Dominant traits shaping a person’s life.

central traits: Major characteristics influencing behavior.

secondary traits: Less important traits appearing in certain situations.

source traits: Underlying basic traits causing behavior.

surface traits: Observable personality traits.

projective tests: Personality tests using ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious thoughts.

Rorschach Inkblot Test: Projective test interpreting inkblots.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Projective test creating stories about pictures.

evolutionary theory: Motivation explained through survival and reproduction.

primary drives: Biological needs like hunger and thirst.

secondary drive: Learned needs associated with rewards.

arousal theory: People seek an optimal level of stimulation.

Yerkes-Dodson law: Moderate arousal leads to best performance.

drive-reduction theory: Behavior motivated by reducing biological needs.

homeostasis: Maintaining internal balance.

set point: Natural level the body tries to maintain.

self-determination theory: Motivation increases with autonomy, competence, and connection.

instinct: Innate unlearned behavior pattern.

instinct theory: Behavior motivated by instincts.

intrinsic factors: Internal motivations like enjoyment.

extrinsic factors: External motivations like rewards.

overjustification effect: External rewards reducing intrinsic motivation.

achievement motivation: Desire to accomplish goals and succeed.

incentive theory: Behavior motivated by rewards and punishments.

need for affiliation: Desire for social relationships.

ostracism: Exclusion from a group.

motivational conflicts: Conflicts between competing goals.

approach-approach: Choosing between two desirable options.

avoidance-avoidance: Choosing between two undesirable options.

approach-avoidance: One goal has both positive and negative aspects.

multiple approach-avoidance: Several choices each having positives and negatives.

sensation-seeking theory: Seeking novel and intense experiences.

experience-seeking (adventure-seeking): Desire for new and exciting activities.

disinhibition: Reduced restraint leading to impulsive behavior.

boredom susceptibility: Dislike of routine and repetitive experiences.

hypothalamus: Brain structure regulating hunger, thirst, and sex.

ventromedial hypothalamus: Part of hypothalamus linked to stopping eating.

lateral hypothalamus: Part of hypothalamus linked to hunger.

leptin: Hormone signaling fullness.

blood glucose: Sugar in blood used for energy.

glucostatic hypothesis: Hunger related to blood glucose levels.

lipostatic hypothesis: Body maintains a stable fat level.

anorexia nervosa: Eating disorder involving self-starvation.

bulimia nervosa: Eating disorder involving bingeing and purging.

pituitary gland: Endocrine gland controlling hormones.

androgens: Male sex hormones like testosterone.

estrogens: Female sex hormones regulating reproduction.

universal emotions: Emotions recognized across cultures.

display rules: Cultural rules about expressing emotions.

facial feedback hypothesis: Facial expressions influence emotions.

broaden-and-build theory: Positive emotions expand thinking and build resilience.

flashback: Vivid memory re-experiencing a traumatic event.