Chapter 1 AP REVIEW

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that ones would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

Critical thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational definition

A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, so see wether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Case study

An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them.

False consensus effect

The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.

Population

All the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study.

Random sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Naturalistic observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and this of how well either factor predicts the other.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.

Illusory correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists.

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one of more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process.

Double-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about wether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo.

Placebo effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone.

Experimental condition

The condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control condition

The condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance.

Independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution.

Median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Statistical significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.